cognition (modules 31-36) Flashcards
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
alzheimers disease
begins as difficulty remembering new information, and progresses into an inability to do everyday tasks
recall
-retrieving information
-a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
-identifying items previously learned
-a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
-learning something more quickly
-a measure of memory that asses the amount of time saved when learning material again
overlearning
addition rehearsal of verbal information which increases retention
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
-such as digits of a phone number
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that add conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
three stage memory model
- we first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory
- we process information into short term memory where we encode it through rehearsal
- information moves into long term memory for later retrieval
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
-also called declarative memory
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency and of well learned information such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
-nondeclarative memory
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
-picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
-if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar manageable units
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
peg-word system
mnemonic that requires you to learn a jingle
hierarchies
broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
distributed practice produces
better long term memory rather than massed practice (cramming)
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words
-tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
-one of our two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
-one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation LTP
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis o learning and memory
LTP is a physical basis for memory
-drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
-drugs that mimic what happens during learning increase LTP
-rats given a drug that enhanced LTP learned a maze with half the usual number of mistakes
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
serial position effect
the tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
reasons for forgetting
-encoding failure
-storage decay
-retrieval failure
proactive interference
old learning disrupts new learning recall
retroactive interference
new learning disrupts old learning recall
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that “i’ve experienced this before”
cognition
all the mental activates associated with thinking, knowing revering, and communicating
concept
a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solution
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problems
heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
insight
a sudden realization of a problems solution
-contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way
-often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless immediate automatic feeling or thought as contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
estimating likelihood of events in terms of how well they match our prototypes
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
-if instances come to mind easily
overcondfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct and overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed
language
our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound unit
- to say bat, english speakers use “b” “a” “t” phoneme
morpheme
the smallest unit that carries meaning
-prefix or part of a word
grammar
a system of rules that enables us to communicate with an understand others
semantics
the languages set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
syntax
set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
babbling stage
starts around 4 months and infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first
one word stage
starts around one year where child speaks in mostly single words
two word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child mostly speaks in two-word statements
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs
-“go car”
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to broca area or Wernicke’s area
brocas area
helps to control language expression
-in the front lobe, left hemispherew
wernickes area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression
-usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis –> language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
linguistic influence
the ideas that language affects thought thus our thinking and world view is relative to our cultural language
sins of forgetting
Transience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
transcience
memories gradually fade over time
absent mindedness
forgetting caused by lapses in attention
blocking
forgetting when a memory cannot be retrieved because of interference
suggestibility
the process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
bias
the influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory
persistence
a memory problem where unwanted memories cannot be put out of our mind
