Cognition and Learning Flashcards
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
visual encoding
the encoding of picture images
acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound
semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning
**retains the most information
hippocampus
processes explicit memory for storage
effortful processing
encoding that requires conscious effort and attention
ie riding a bike
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental info and of well learned info
ie where you ate yesterday
rehearsal
conscious repetition of info
mnemonics
memory aids, usually used as organizational devices
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
spacing effect
information is better retained when learned over a period of time
serial position effect
our tendency to best recall the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items on a list
storage
the retention of encoded info over time
sensory memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory info in the memory system
iconic memory
momentary visual sensory memory; lasts no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
momentary auditory memory; sounds and words can be recalled within 3-4 seconds
short term memory (working)
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the info is stored or forgotten
lasts about 20 sec can contain 5-9 items
important info goes to long term
long term memory
the relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of memory system
explicit (aka Declarative) memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”
semantic memory
facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
personally experienced events
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
implicit (aka procedural) memory
retention without conscious recollection (such as skills)
cerebellum plays a role
flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant event
hormones released during emotional moments enhance the memory creation
storing memories
memories are stored all throughout the brain
long term potentiation (LTP)
increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
priming
the activation of particular associations in memory
ie “when i hear ____, I think of ____”
Mnemonic devices
context effects
we remember better when we are in the same context as when we originally learned the info
Deja Vu
probably just cues from the current situation triggering retrieval of an earlier experience
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s mood
recall
a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve info learned earlier without reference
ie list presidents
essay, short answer, fill in the blank
recognition
a measure of memory in which one need only identify items previously learned
ie list the presidents while using a picture
multiple choice
failure to encode
sometimes we fail to encode because there is just too much information and we don’t notice small details
hermann ebbinghous study / curve of forgetting
learned lists of nonsense syllables (dak, bax, etc.) then measured how much he remembered from 20 mins to 30 days later
(lose a lot of info right away and then there’s a leveling off)
amnesia
the loss of memory
anterograde amnesia
inability to create memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall memories
proactive interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info
PeDaL: Prior Disrupts Later
ie calling your new gf by your old gf’s name
retroactive interference
disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info
ie you call your old gf by your new gf’s name
repression
a basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
imagination effect
repeatedly imagining non existent actions and events can create false memories
polygraphs
compare physiological responses between “control” and “relevant” questions
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound units
we have trouble pronouncing phonemes of other langages
morpheme
the smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)
grammar
a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
(deep) semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
(surface) syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
how many words does the average high school graduate know?
60,000
babbling stage
first occurs around 4 months of age
the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
resembles household language around 10 months
one-word stage
first occurs around 12 months of age
child mostly speaks in single words
two-word stage
first occurs around 24 months of age
child mostly speaks in two word statements
after this, child will rapidly begin formulating sentences
Noam Chomsky’s Theory of Inborn Universal Grammar
believed humans had a “language acquisition device” (biological predisposition) to develop language (NATURE)
B.F. Skinner’s Theory of Operant Learning
believed humans learn language through operant conditioning and social learning (NURTURE)
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (aka linguistic determinism)
the idea that language determines the way we think
cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
metacognition
the ability to analyze your own thoughts
includes the way we create concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototypes
a mental image or best example of a concept
algorithms
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristics
a rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently (speedier but error prone)
insight
a sudden and novel realization of the solution to the problem
artificial intelligence
the science of designing computer systems to perform operations that mimic human thinking
what can computers do better than humans?
manipulate huge amounts of data, retrieve detailed information from memory, make decisions using specified rules
what are computers worse at than humans?
computers can not fear, desire, have beliefs or other subjective mental states
Animal cognition
animals think, are culturally diverse, and exhibit language
smartest animals are the equivalent to 2 year old humans
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information the confirms one’s perception
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
belief perseverance
clinging to initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct
barnum effect
the tendency for people to believe very vague or general characterizations of themselves
representativeness heuristic
a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
