Chapter Two: Paradigms- exam 1 Flashcards
what is a paradigm
A paradigm is a conceptual, theoretical framework work for understanding behavior. A particular perspective. A theory or a set of related theories.
Diathesis/stress
inborn predisposition (genetic, biological) + environmental (experiences) stress
Humanistic
psychology as defined by Maslow, inlcuded free will. People will naturally make good choices and be happier
Based on the assumption that humans have an innate capacity for goodness and for living a full life. The environment can play a big role in our happiness/ unhapiness. Carl Rogers was one of the founders of the humanistic approach.
according to Freud what caused abnormal behavior/mental disorders and how should they be treated?
all behaviors, thoughts, and emotions are influenced to a large extent by unconscious processes. Treatment focused on uncovering and resolving the unconscious processes that are thought to drive psychological symptoms. He used the method of free association, catharsis is cental to the healing process in therapy.
classic Freudian psychoanlysis typically involeves 3-4 sessions per week over many years. The focus is primarily on the interpretation of dream content, transferences, and resistances, as well as on experiences in the client’s past.
what was the psychoanalytic theory (freud)
personality is how we resolve the conflict between restraint (social control) and impulse (pleasure seeking and biological urges)
what was the psychosexual personality theory (and give ages)
children go through a series of stages that lead to the development of their adult personality based on how their caregivers approached each stage
oral stage: 0-1.5
anal stage: 1-3
phallic stage: 3-6
latency stage: 6-12
genital stage: 12>
what are life and death instincts
our unconscious motivation (psychic energy)
life instincts: breathing, eathing, sex (libido)
death instincts: destructive, aggressive
what is the ID, EGO, and superEGO (pleasure principle, reality principle, and perfection principle)
Personality structure (psychic energy distributed) (freud)
ID- what I want (hypothalamus): unconscious, basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress, operates on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification), impulsive, primary process thinking
EGO- mediator: executive mediator between the id, superego, and reality, operates on the reality principle, can delay gratification, maximizes long term consequences to gain pleasure. secondary process thinking. can play tricks to bring down anxiety
SuperEGO: the ideal, how we ought to behave, operates on the perfection principle, pride (+) or guilt (-), controls you through emotions
what is libido
psychic energy driven by the life instinct for sex. shifts from one part of the body to the other seeking gratification (stages). ‘most important’ because many problems resolve around these conflicts
what are defense mechanisms (and examples)
Anna Freud helped develop the field of ego psychology emphasizing the importance of the individual’s ability to regulate defenses in ways that allow health functioning within the realities of society. People use defense mechanisms to handle their internal conflicts.
- created by EGO
- used to redirect or reduce anxiety
- distorts reality
- unconscious
- fear of loosing control of id/super ego conflict.
Examples: repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression, sublimation
what is counter transference
describes teh feelings a therapist may develop for clients they are working with during the course of therapy
what is primary process thinking
illogical thiking related directly to the subject. Ex: you are hungry during class and all you are thinking about is what you want to eat
what is secondary process thinking
thinking process that involves problem solving and systematic thinking, thinking ahead
pyschosexual stage: oral
First stage of psychosexual development and lasts from 0-1.5.
Sexual zone was the mouth (primary source of interaction) infant dervies pleasure through oral stimulation from sucking, eating, and tasting. Child develops sense of trust through this since they are entirely dependent on their care giver.
if fixation occurs at this stage freud believes that the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression –> problems with drinking, eating, nail biting, smoking
pyschosexual stage: anal
2nd psychosexual stage from 1-3 years old
primary focus of libido was controlling bladder and bowel movements (potty training). developing control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to freud inappropriate parental response can result in an individual with a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality (too lenient) or stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive (too strict)
psychosexual stage: phallic
3rd stage ages 3-6
primary focus of libido is on the genitals as children begin to discover the differences between males and females. Girls develop penis envy. Boys want to posses their mothers and girls want to possess thier fathers
pyschosexual stage: latent
4th stage ages 6-12
superego continues to develop while id energies are suppressed. children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers adn adults outside the family. Sexual energy is dormant. Fixation in this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult
psychosexual stage: genital
last stage; lasts from 12+
puberty causes libido to reactivate and strong sexual interest is developed.
what is free association
developed by Freud. Client talks about whatever comes to mind without censoring anything. Therapist picks up on reoccuring themes and specific memories.
what is transference
when the client reacts to the therapist as if the therapist were an important person in the client’s early development, such as their father or mother
dream analysis
a focus of psychoanalysis
transference vs. counter transference
transference is when the client reacts to the therapist in a certain way and countertransference is when the therapist develops certain feelings toward a client
how do you assess personality with the psychoanalytic approach
nurturance a child recieves from their early caregivers stringly influences personality development. (getting fixated in a certain stage or parents reacting to an extreme at a certain stage)
what are the projective tests discsussed in class
people are presented with an ambiguous stimulus and they will interpret the stimulus in line with their current concerns and feelings, relationships with others, or conflict and desires. Project their issues into the content of the test
- - Rorschach ink blot test
- TAT: thematic apperception test
Rorschach ink blot
- developed by Herman Rorschach and consists of 10 cards containing a symmetrical ink blot.
- client will project unconscious aspects of their personality by giving meaning to ambiguous images.
- clinicians look for certain themes in the responses
TAT
thematic apperception test
- consists of a series of pictures and the individual is asked to make up a story about what is happening in the pictures.
- supporters of the test argue people’s stories reflect their concerns and wishes as well as their personality traits and motives.
What was the pavlov experiment (techniques)
- classical conditioning
- unconditioned stimulus (food), unconditioned response (salvating dogs), Conditioned stimulus (previously neutral stimulus: pavlov, bell, etc.) Conditioned response (salvating at sound of bell, etc)
associative/classical behaviorism
- we learn association between events
- we anticipate important events. If ‘a’ always precedes ‘b’, then a comes to predict b.
- the stimulus happens first and the behavior follows
- the stimulus elicits the response (starts with inborn behavior - a reflex)
UCS
unconditioned stimulus. The stimulus that naturally triggers a response
UCR
unconditioned response. unlearned, natural response. UCS + UCR= reflex
CS
Conditioned stimulus. The previously neutral stimulus that becomes a learned trigger for the response
CR
Conditioned response: learned response to a condition stimulus
extinction
lessening of a condition response
- classical: occurs when CS is repeatedly present without the UCS
- operant: occurs when behavior is no longer reinforced
Generalization
stimuli that are similar to the CS will evoke some level of the CR
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period
discrimination
The ability to distinguish one stimuli from another, responding only to the CS
Watson- little albert experiment
presented a child with neutral stimuli. Presented stimuli with loud noise making child cry. Afterward, when presented with any previous natural stimuli child started crying
Thorndike (law of effect)
The behavioral response is affected by the consequence (effect) of that behavior.
- behavior changes because of its consequences
- trial & error learning results in some behaviors (those followed by a good consequence) being ‘stamped in’, while others (those followed by discomfort or unpleasant consequences) are stamped out
- rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur.
- (operant conditioning)
positive and negative reinforcement and punishment
- Reinforcer/Reinforcement: makes behavior more likely to occur. Strengthens the response. Increases the rate of operant responding
- Punishment: decreases the behavioral response. Decreases the response strength. Decreases the rate of operant responding
- positive: apply or administer something
- negative: takeaway; withdrawl of something
- positive reinforcement: application of reward
- negative reinforcement: removal of something aversive
- positive punishment: application of something aversive
- negative punishment: removal of something good
operant conditioning
the behavior happens first (we ‘operate’ on our environment) we are then rewarded or punished
an ‘operant’ is any response that operates on the environment.
- using reinforcers and punishers to change behaviors
- engage in behaviors that are rewarded
- avoid behaviors that our punished
Skinner
- worked with rats and pigeons
- operant conditioning
- the skinner box
- reinforcement schedules
- shaping: reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior
Bandura (observational, modeling)
- social learning theory- observational learning
- bobo doll experiment
- modeling: people learn new behaviors from imitating the behaviors from imitating the behaviors modeled from important people in their lives. (authority figure or similiar to the child) (more likely to model same-sex parent)
- observational learning occurs when a person observes the rewards and punishments that another person reveives for his or her behavior and then behaves in accordance with those rewards and punishments.
Treatments based on various behavior/learning theories
- Behavioral therapies: identify reinforcements and punishments that contribute to a person maladaptive behaviors and change specific behaviors
- cognitive therapies: help clients identifiy and challenge their negative thoughts and dysfunctional belief systems. goal is to define problems and teach more effective problem-solving skills
- pyschodynamic therapies: help clients recognize their maladaptive coping strategies and the sources of their unconscious conflicts
systematic desensitization
a gradual method for extinguishing anxiety responses to stimuli and the maladaptive behavior that often accompanies this anxiety.
what is ABA
applied behavior analysis
application of operant conditioning
identify:
- behavior to be targeted
- environmental conditions contributing to behavior
using:
- A: antecedent (environmental stimuli and events that precede the behavior)
- B: behavior (specific responses the individual makes)
- C: consequence (stimuli and events immediatly following the behavior)
in an intense, systematice, structured way
what is learned helplessness
feelings of powerlessness after persistent failure to succeed.
cognitivie theory
peoples emotions and behaviors are influenced by perceptions of events. Our thoughts and beliefs shape our behavior and the emotions we experience
perception is what type of prossesing
top down
- our meaning
- how our brain organizes adn interprets
sensation is what type of processing
bottom up
- what is out there
- properties of objects
schema
- organized collection of already collected knowledge
- cognitive set. mental frame work
cognitive restructuring
- changing a pattern of thought
- examines: daily thoughts, core biases, and schema
Aaron Beck (what did he believe caused abnormal behavior and how should it be treated?)
- most negative emotions or maladaptive behaviors are the result of one or more of the dysfunctional gloabl assumptions that guide a persons life.
- treatment: cognitive therapy: identify and challenge negative thoughts and dysfunctional belief systems
what is negative schema
- a ‘perceptial set’ in whihc we tend to see the world negatively
- acquired through loss of a parent, experiencing tragedies, social rejection, severe criticism, or the depressive attitude of those around us
what is cognitive bias
- a slanted view point that leads to misperceptions
- cause errors in logic
negative triad
- negative views of self, world, and the future
what is CBT
- cognitive behavioral therapy
- focuses on ‘here and now’ problems and difficulties looking for ways to improve current state of mind.
what is 3rd wave
- view poor regulation of emotions as a transdiagnostic risk factor at the core of many forms of psychopathology.
- combines techniques from behavioral and cognitive therapy with mindfullness and meditation practices to help individuals accept, understand, and better regulate their emotions
- most well known kind is DBT
What does the medical perspective say about causes and treatments of abnormal behavior
- medical theories erase any blame that may be put on the person with the disorder
- treat like any other medical disease (like diabetes or high blood pressure)
- people should accept they have the disease and seek appropriate treatment
what is etiology
cause or causes of a disorder
what are the parts of the nueron and what do they do
dendrites: short branches that collect signals from adjacent neurons
receptors: where neurotransmitter plugs in. BInd NT or drug
axon: tube like extensions that passses electrical signals to axon terminal. action potential
axon hillock/initial segment: where axon meets cell body
soma: cell body (processing)
myelin: helps send impulses, made by glial cell
axon terminal or button:
synaptic vesicles: packages
synapse: space neurotransmitter floats across
neurotransmitters receptor:
what is an agonist and an atagonist
agonist: causes or increases function
antagonist: prevents or reduces function
what is reuptake
when the initial neron releasing the neurotransmitter into the synapse reabsorbs the neurotransmitter, decreasing the amount left in the synapse.
describe the process of synaptic transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process at synapses by which a chemical signal (a transmitter) is released from one neuron and diffuses to other neurons or target cells where it generates a signal which excites, inhibits or modulates cellular activity
nuerotransmitter production
- occurs within presynaptic vesicles
- action potential reaches presynaptic vesicles, triggering depolarization of presynaptic terminals, which opens ion channels allowing Na+ into the cell.
- NT release triggered by influx of Ca2+ into the cell
neurotransmitter storage and release
- stored in synaptic vesicles
- released through synaptic transmission
neurotransmitter binding to receptor
- open/close ion channels
- send intracellular message - turn on or off
- change gene expression
- agonist or antagonist
neurotransmitter breakdown
- degradation. occurs when the receiving neron releases an enzyme into the synapse that breaks down the neurotransmitter into other biochemicals.
- also can occur when the releasing neuron provides an enzyme
what does it take for a neuron to send a message
needs to bind to a receptor which will stimulate an adjacent neuron to initiate the impulse, which then runs through its dendrites and cell body and down its axon to cause the release of more neurotransmitters between it and other neurons
what does it take for a neuron to turn off
what is the CNS
central nervous system
- brain and spinal cord
what is the PNS
peripheral nervous system
- voluntary motor control ( skeletal muscle)
- somatosensory input
- autonomic division
what is the ANS
Autonomic nervous system
- sympathetic NS arouses (fight or flight)
- parasympathetic NS calms (rest and digest)
what are the 4 lobes of the cerebrum
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- occipital
frontal lobe and pre frontal cortex major functions
frontal lobe:
- motor: voluntary control of skeletal muscles, eye movements
- speech production: brocas area
Prefrontal cortex (PFC): association cortex
- strategy formation
- divergent thinking
- risk taking, rule breaking
- motor inhibition
- attention
- working memory
- smell
parietal major functions
Sensory
Association areas:
- math (angular gyrus -left)
- body image
- spatial ability and drawing
- contralateral neglect (right): right hemisphere damage produces meglect of left visual field and left body
temporal major functions
- hearing
- memory (hippocampus)
- ‘personality’ (amygdala)
- categorization and organization
- speech comprehension: wenickie’s area
occipital major functions
Vision
- primary visual cortex
- some visual ‘association cortex’ in parietal (motion) and temporal (form and color)
cerebellum major functions
- motor coordination: ‘unconscious’ or ‘proceedural’ motor memory, motor memory
- vestibular input- balance
major functions of the brain stem/medulla
- oldest part of the brain; automatic survival functions
- vegetative functions (heart rate, respiration, blood pressure)
- Reticular activating system (RAS): arousal, wakefulness, adn sleep
- Thalamus: sensory relay center directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits - replies to teh cerebellum and medulla
what are the subcortical structures
limbic system:
- hypothalamus
- amygdala
- hippocampus
where is the hypothalamus and what is its main function
- located below thalamus
- behavioral expression of emotion - ANS control
- regulates through hormones and neural connections to pituitary: thirst/drinking, hunger/eating, body temp, sex
what is the major function of the limbic system
- emotions (such as fear and aggression)
- drives for food and sex
- memory
- la grande lobe
what is the major function of the cingulated gyrus
important part of the limbic system that helps regulate emotions and pain
what is the significance of the corpus callosum
- connects right and left sides of the brain
what is the function and location of the hippocampus
- ## memory
what are the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system
- sensory input to brain is corssed
- motor output to teh body is corssed
Left brain: - laughter
- logic - reasons
- lingual -speech
- list
- controls right hand
- right visual field
Right Brain: - faces
- mute
- pictures/spatial
- controls left hand
- left visual field
purpose of Grey matter/ white matter
grey matter: neuronal cell bodies (soma)
White matter: myelinated axons
- outher surfaces of the brain is convuluted to pack in lots of cell bodies
what does HPA axis stand for
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. People who have a dysregulated HPA axis may have abnormal physiological reactions to stress that make it more difficult for them to cope with stress, resulting in symptoms of anxiety and depression
what is cortisol
produced by the adrenal glands. Amount of cortisol found in blood or urine is used to measure stress
what brain area is responsible for the ‘behavioral expression of emotion’
hypothalamus
what is glutamate
glutamate neurons are the major excitaroy pathways linking the cortex, limbic system, and thalamus
what is GABA
- gamma-aminobutyric acid
inhibits the action of other neurotransmitters
thought to play an important role in anxiety symptoms
what is serotonin
neurotransmitter that travels through key areas of the brain, affecting their function.
plays an important and complicated role in emotional well being, particularly in depressin and anxiety, and in dysfunctional behaviors such as aggresive impulses
what is norepinephrine
- also known as noradrenaline. Neurotransmitter produced mainly by nerons in teh brain stem.
- functions as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone
- As a neurotransmitter, it’s a chemical messenger that helps transmit nerve signals across nerve endings to another nerve cell, muscle cell or gland cell. As a hormone, it’s released by your adrenal glands.
- part of the sympathetic nervous system - fight or flight
- increases alertness/attention, affects sleep cylce, mood, and memory, constricts blood vessels to maintain blood pressure during stress
what is dopamine
neurotransmitter associated with reinforcement and rewards, Affected by things we find rewarding. Also important in the functioning of muscle systems and plays a role in disorders involving control over muscles, like parkinsons
what are some treatments based on the medical model of abnormal behavior
drug therapies and psychotherapy
defense mechanism: repression/denial
keeps anxiety causing thoughts, feelings, and memories unconscious. May come out in dreams, symbolism and slips of the tongue. If I don’t think about it, it doesn’t exist
Defense mechanism: regression
reverting to earlier, more inantile stage of development when stressed.
Defense mechanism: reaction formation
express exactly the opposite feeling. (saying what you like about someone when you can’t stand them)
defense mechanism: projection
attributing your feelings to ohers (you want to go to bed so you remind someone of their early class)
defense mechanism: displacement
divert feelings to a ‘safer’ or more acceptable recipient. Bad day at worl you go home and yell at your family
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous:
- reinforcing every response
- rapid aquistion: increases numbers of responses are made and less time is taken between responses- positively accelerated
- used when first learning new behavior
Partial:
- reinforcing only some responses
- best if unpredictable
- use to maintain behavior (prevents extinction)
- ratio or interval
Ratio: (number) dependent on amount of work
- fixed: set number of responses (punch cards)
- variable: unpredictable number of responses (slor machines)
Interval: (time) dependent on time that has passed (& a response being made)
- Fixed: fixed time period (pay day, pain meds)
- variable: varying time periods (pop quiz)
Neural communication in the ____ system is ______
hormonal communication in the blank is _______
nervous, fast
endocrine, slow
types of glial cells and their function
support cells:
- packing peanuts: protoplasmic (protection)
- physiology: astrocytes
- make myelin: schawn cells (PNS), oligodendrocyte (CNS)
- defense: microglia
what does the spinal cord do
act as a cable between the brain and body
allows reflex connections
- afferent incoming
- efferent outgoing
- brain NOT required reflexes happen in the spinal cord
Afferent neurons
- carry messages toward the CNS
- input: pick up changes in the environment and carry this information to the CNS
- sensory: touch, pain, taste, smell, vision, sound. unipolar, bipolar
efferent neurons
- carry messages away from CNS to effector organs
- output
- produce a response in muscles, glands, organs
- cause an effect
- motor
- multipolar
interneurons
- connect one neuron to another
- connect sensory (input) and motor (output) neurons
- allow complex relfex connections
what does the autonomic nervous system -sympathetic do
- fight or flight
- mobilizes for emergency
- accelerates
- diffuses/widespread
- adrenergic: epinephrine, norepinephrine
- pupils dialate, skin perspires, respiration and pulse increase
- decrease salivation, inhibit digestion
What does the ANS- parasympathetic do
- rest and digest
- slows
- discrete
- cholinergic: acetylcholine
- constricts pupils
- slows HR and resp
- relaxes external syphincter muscle
- increases salivation and gut motility (promotes digestion)
the endocrine system
- the bodys slow chemical communication system
- communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands
what are hormones
chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the bloodstream. They often affect the brain and many other tissues of the body
pituitary gland
- called the “master gland”
- releases hormones that regulate other glands.
thyroid and parathyroid glands
regulate metabolic and calcium rate
adrenal glands
consist of the adrenal and medulla and the cortex. Medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism
