chapter 9 memory and thinking Flashcards
what is effortul processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
examples of effortul processing
Rehearsal/Repetition (Ebbinghaus)
Spacing Effect
Next-in-line-Effect Serial Position Effect (Primacy-Recency)
Spacing Effect:
We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Next-in-line-Effect:
When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.
serial Position Effect:
When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. This is also referred to as the Primacy-Recency Effect.
Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information
examples of autonomic processing
space
Time
Frequency
Space
: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
Time:
We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
Frequency:
You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.
what three things do we encode?
meaning
organization
imagery
examples of Meaning encoding
Semantic (Details)
Visual (Better Than Auditory w/pronunciation)
Self-Reference Effect
Depth of Processing (Craik,Tulving,& Lockhart)
Semantic (Details)
Semantic encoding with pictures. The small person in the phone booth playing a trombone.
Self-Reference Effect
We encode (and thus recall) information
that relates to us personally.Visual vs. Auditory Information
- Encoding imagery aids effortful processing because vivid images are very memorable. We tend to remember concrete nouns better than abstract nouns.
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
examples of Organization encoding
Chunking
Clustering
chuncking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
examples of Imagery encoding
Mnemonic Devices
Method of Loci
Link Method
Mnemonics
A tool to help remember facts or a large
amount of information. It can be a song,
rhyme, acronym, image or phrase to help
remember a list of facts in a certain order.
Method of Loci
(Connecting Items to Locations)
Charcoal… backyard
Pens…..study
Bed Sheets….. bedroom
Hammer….. garage
Link Method
Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.
Sensory Memories (Sperling) time
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic (eyes)
0.5 sec. long
Echoic (ears)
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic (touch)
< 1 sec. long
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).
Amnesia
The inability to learn new information or
retrieve information that has already been
stored in memory.
Anterograde –
is the failure to store
memories after a trauma.
Retrograde –
is the failure to recall memories that
have been stored before a trauma.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome –
amnesia caused by the misuse
of alcohol.
Duration
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal.
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986).
Episodic
Stores our ability to recall specific incidents
from our past.
Sometimes referred to as declarative memory or
explicit memory (facts and experiences).
Processed by the hippocampus – think about the Clive
Wearing story
Semantic
longterm storage bank
Network of associations and concepts that
make-up our general knowledge of the
world. Ex: Language
Procedural (Skill)
Enables us to learn/do specific skills.
Sometimes referred to as implicit memory.
Processed by the cerebellum.
Retrieval:
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Recall
person muyst retrieve information using effort.
ex. essay
Recognition
Person must identify an
item amongst other
choices
ex. multiple choice
Retrieval Idea #2 – Associations
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
Retrieval Idea #3 - Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.
Retrieval Idea #4 - Context
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Retrieval Idea #7 -
Mood Congruent Theory
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
Retrieval Idea #8
State-Dependent Theory
We have an increased chance of recalling
information if we are in the same state that
we encoded it.
Retrieval Idea #9 - Experience
As people develop expertise in an area,
central concepts become increasingly
elaborated, organized, and interconnected.
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.
Proactive
– disruptive information of prior
learning on the recall of new
information.
Retroactive
– disruptive effect of new
learning on the recall of old
information.
Memory Construction scientist
Elizabeth Loftus is the
key researcher in the
field of memory
construction.
Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading
information into one’s
memory of an event.
what is memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Source Amnesia
Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).
Information Processing
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.
Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
rote
memorization by repitition
displacement
defense mechanism in which unwanted feelings are directed towards a different object
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
eidetic memory
Photographic Memory
