Chapter 9 - Blood, Lymphatic System Flashcards
What is blood mostly composed of
Rbc, wbc and platelets.
What is blood
Connective tissue with a plasma matrix. The protein fibers are only visible when the blood clots.
What are three functions of blood
Transport
Regulation (body temp, water balance, ph balance)
Defense (against pathogens, blood clotting)
What is plasma composed of
Water, proteins and other solutes
What are the formed elements composed of
Platelets, leukocytes and erythrocytes
Describe plasma
Fluid portion with dissolved substances: plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, clotting factors) and gases, nutrients, waste and hormones
What is % of blood volume dependant on
Species and amount of hydration. Cats have smaller rbc than dogs and a higher % of plasma in blood. Hemoconcentration vs. hemodilution
What is the normal yellow color in plasma due to
Bilirubin
Why can blood plasma appear cloudy
Due to postprandial lipemia. (Fat in blood after eating)
How do you avoid postprandial lipemia
Fast before taking a blood sample
What is the difference between serum and plasma
Serum is the same as plasma except it lacks clotting factors
What does supernatant mean
Serum
What is the intrinsic blood coagulation pathway
Surface contact Hageman factor (Active) hageman factor Christmas factor (Active) christmas factor Stable factor Platelet membrane Phospholipid Calcium ions (Active) stable factor P.M.P Calcium ions
Describe the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway
Tissue damage Tissue factor: stable factor Stable factor Platelet membrane phospholipid Calcium ions
Describe the common coagulation pathway
V, platelet membrane, phospholipid Prothrombin Thrombin Fibrin stabilizing factor OR fibrogen Fibrin Stable fibrin clot
What is an anticoagulant
Used to prevent blood clotting (coagulation) in vitro or in vivo. Substance blocks one of clotting factors in pathway
What does edta coagulation do
Binds ca++, used in lab (lavender top)
What does heparin anticoagulant do
Naturally occurring. Used to prevent thrombosis and embolism
What does warfarin anticoagulant do
In 1940: used as rat poison
In 1950: used medicinally as an oral anticoagulant
What are the three formed elements in blood
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Thrombocytes
How much percent of blood does plasma compose
55% of blood
What is a Buffy coat and what is it part of
It is leukocytes and thrombocytes, it’s part of the formed elements and its it greater than 1% of whole blood
What is an erythrocyte and what is it part of
It is red blood cells and it composed 45% of whole blood
Wbc are considered what
Complete cells
Describe the physiology of a rbc
Have no nuclei or most other organelles
What are platelets considered
Cell fragments
How long do formed elements last in blood
Survive in bloodstream for a few days with the exception of wbc
Where do blood cells originate
Originate in red bone marrow and do not divide (exception: some wbc)
What is hematopoiesis
The formation of blood cells. It is a continual process: stem cells formed element cells
How long does it take a stem cell to turn into a rbc
15 days
How long do red blood cells survive
100-120 days
What is step 3 in the stem cell conversion to rbc
Proerythroblast turns into basophilic erythroblast
What is the 4th step in the conversion from stem cells to rbc
From a basophilic erythroblast to polychromatic erythroblast.
What is the 7th step of the conversion from stem cell to rbc
From orthochromatic erythroblast to reticulocyte
Describe phase 1 of the development pathway
Ribosome synthesis
What is phase 2 of the development pathway
Hemoglobin accumulation
What is phase 3 in the development pathway
Ejection of nucleus
What is polychromasia
Lavender cytoplasm. Hemoglobin production begins
What does the erythropoietin hormone
Stimulates erythropoiesis, always have a small amount in blood. High rbc or O2 levels depress production. Released by kidneys in response to hypoxia
What are the causes of hypoxia
Decreased rbc numbers due to hemorrhage or increase destruction. Insufficient hemoglobin per rbc (iron deficiency) or reduced availability of o2 (high altitudes)
In early fetus, what organs are responsible for hematopoiesis
Liver and spleen
When fetus ages, what becomes more prominent
Red bone marrow
As an animal ages what happens to red bone marrow
Red bone marrow is reduced to epiphyses and replaced by yellow bone marrow in diaphyses
What does anucleation mean in terms of erythrocytes
Making more space for hemoglobin
What are the benefits of having biconcave disks (erythrocytes)
Higher surface area to transport gases across membrane.
Flexible; can squeeze through small capillaries
What type of respiration do erythrocytes have
Anaerobic
Do erythrocytes have mitochondria ?
No
Do erythrocytes have a nucleus?
Only in non mammalian species
What do red blood cell size and color vary on
Species
How much of the cell does hemoglobin compose
35%
What is hemoglobin composed of
Globular proteins (4 polypeptides) + heme groups (containing iron )
How many O2 can each hemoglobin carry
4 O2
How many hemoglobin. Do we have in our body
250 million hb/rbc
Animals with smaller cells have
More rbc
What are the three types of hemoglobin
Embryonic hemoglobin (HBe) Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) Adult hemoglobin (Hb)
What’s the difference between fetal hemoglobin and adult hemoglobin.
Fetal has a higher affinity to O2 than adult Hb. Very good in low O2 environment
Describe O2 loading in lungs
Produces oxyhemoglobulin (ruby red) Hb+O2 ➡️ HbO2
Describe O2 unloading in tissues
Produces deoxyhemoglobin or empty hemoglobin (dark red)
Hb+o2➡️HbO2
Describe CO2 loading in tissues
20% of CO2 in blood binds to Hb
Hb + CO2 ➡️ HbCO2
What does the lifespan of red blood cells depend on
Varies by species. Large animals have longer living rbc
What does senesce mean
Age
As red blood cells age what happens
Become rounder with less surface area and get trapped in spleen
What happens to old rbc when they get trapped in the spleen
Most are phagocytized by macrophages (wbc) in spleen, some destroyed in blood vessels.
What happens when rbc die
Replaced by young cells from red bone marrow
What happens to globins when they’re separated from heme
Globins are metabolized into amino acids which are sent to liver for production of new proteins
What happens to iron when it’s Seperated from heme and globin
Iron salvaged for reuse; sent to red bone marrow
What happens to heme when it’s Seperated from globin
Heme is degraded to yellow pigment called bilirubin. Sent to liver to be used in bile which is secreted into the small intestine
What happens if liver is unable to process all the bilirubin,
it can collect in the tissues which is jaundice
What is anemia ?
Blood has abnormally low O2 carrying capacity. Low O2 levels cannot support metabolism.
What are the symptoms of anemia
Fatigue, pallor
What is the cause of anemia
Blood loss, decreased erythropoiesis, decreased hemoglobin production
What is polycythemia
Abnormally high number of rbc
What are the three types of polycythemia
Relative polycythemia
Compensatory polycythemia
Polycythemia ruba Vera
Define relative polycythemia
Hemoconcentration (loss of plasma) due to dehydration
Define compensatory polycythemia
Increased erythropoiesis due to hypoxia
Define polycythemia ruba Vera
Rare idiopathic bone marrow disorder
How do you determine amount of cells in blood
❤️Manually count with the hematocytometer slide
❤️Hematocrit or packed cell volume
What does a hematocrit do
Calculate % of rbc (+ Buffy coat plasma)
What are thrombocytes
Platelets that are fragments of larger cells (megakaryocytes)
What are the functions of platelets
❤️Nurture endothelial cells, reduce potential hemorraging
❤️Form temporary platelet plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels
❤️Contain some clotting factors required for coagulation
What is the steps in the formation of platelets
Stem cell (hemocytoblast)➡️megakaryoblast(stage 1)➡️megakaryocyte(stage 2-3)➡️️megakaryocyte (stage 4)➡️platelets
What are leukocytes
White blood cells
Describe white blood cells
Nucleated
Make up less than 1 percent of total blood volume
Function in defense against pathogens
What is leukocytosis
Increased wbc
What is leukocytopenia
Decreased wbc
What do leukocytes do
Function in defense against pathogens by leaving capillaries and travel into tissues
Describe granulocytes
Visible cytoplasmic granules
What are three granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
What are agranulocytes
No cytoplasmic granules
What are the two agranulocytes
Lymphocytes and monocytes (microphages)
What are the leukocytes in decreasing order of abundance
Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
Describe granulocytes
❤️Larger and shorter lived than rbc.
❤️Lobed nuclei (polymorphonuclear)
❤️Cytoplasmic granules stain specifically with wright’s stain
❤️all phagocytic to some degree (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)
What does red wright’s stain mean
Acidic
What does a blue wright’s stain mean
Basic
What does a lavender wright stain mean
Neutral
Describe neutrophils
❤️Most numerous wbc (50-70%)
❤️also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
❤️granules stain lavender contains enzymes and antimicrobial proteins that kill pathogens
❤️bacteria slayers
Describe eosinophils
❤️<5% total wbc
❤️red staining granules
❤️bilobed nucleus
❤️granules released enzymes to digest parasitic worms
What is a basophils
❤️Least numerous wbc (0.5-1%)
❤️nucleus deep purple with 1-2 constrictions
❤️large, purpleish black granules containing histamine
❤️are functionally similar to mast cells
What is histamine
Inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodilator to allow wbc to reach site of infection
What is an agranulocytes
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Have spherical or kidney shaped nuclei: lymphocytes and monocytes
What are lymphocytes
❤️2nd most numerous wbc
❤️Large, dark purple circular nuclei with a blue cytoplasm.
❤️Mostly in lymphoid tissue (lymph nodes, spleen) and a few are in blood.
❤️Crucial to immunity
What are the two types of lymphocytes
➡️ T lymphocytes (T Cells): act against virus infected cells and tumor cells
➡️B lymphocytes (B Cells): give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies
What is a monocytes
❤️largest leukocytes
❤️abundant pale blue cytoplasm
❤️dark purple staining, u or kidney shaped nuclei
What is the pathway of monocytes
Leave circulation, enter tissues and differentiate into macrophages ➡️ activate phagocytic cells and lymphocytes to trigger immune response
What is hemostasis
❤️Rapid series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding.
❤️Require clotting factors and substances released by platelets and injured tissues.
What are the three steps to hemostasis
➡️ Vasoconstriction
➡️platelet plug formation
➡️ coagulation
What is vasoconstriction
❤️Narrowing of damaged blood vessel
❤️Most effective in smaller blood vessels
What is vasoconstriction triggered by
➡️direct injury to vascular smooth muscle
➡️chemicals released by endothelial cell platelets
➡️pain reflex
What is platelet plug formation
Damaged endothelium exposes collagen fibers;
➡️platelets stick to collagen fibers
➡️platelets swell, become spiked and sticky, and released chemicals to cause more platelets to aggregate (positive feedback)
What is a basophils
❤️Least numerous wbc (0.5-1%)
❤️nucleus deep purple with 1-2 constrictions
❤️large, purpleish black granules containing histamine
❤️are functionally similar to mast cells
What is histamine
Inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodilator to allow wbc to reach site of infection
What is an agranulocytes
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Have spherical or kidney shaped nuclei: lymphocytes and monocytes
What are lymphocytes
❤️2nd most numerous wbc
❤️Large, dark purple circular nuclei with a blue cytoplasm.
❤️Mostly in lymphoid tissue (lymph nodes, spleen) and a few are in blood.
❤️Crucial to immunity
What are the two types of lymphocytes
➡️ T lymphocytes (T Cells): act against virus infected cells and tumor cells
➡️B lymphocytes (B Cells): give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies
What is a monocytes
❤️largest leukocytes
❤️abundant pale blue cytoplasm
❤️dark purple staining, u or kidney shaped nuclei
What is the pathway of monocytes
Leave circulation, enter tissues and differentiate into macrophages ➡️ activate phagocytic cells and lymphocytes to trigger immune response
What is hemostasis
❤️Rapid series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding.
❤️Require clotting factors and substances released by platelets and injured tissues.
What are the three steps to hemostasis
➡️ Vasoconstriction
➡️platelet plug formation
➡️ coagulation
What is vasoconstriction
❤️Narrowing of damaged blood vessel
❤️Most effective in smaller blood vessels
What is vasoconstriction triggered by
➡️direct injury to vascular smooth muscle
➡️chemicals released by endothelial cell platelets
➡️pain reflex
What is platelet plug formation
Damaged endothelium exposes collagen fibers;
➡️platelets stick to collagen fibers
➡️platelets swell, become spiked and sticky, and released chemicals to cause more platelets to aggregate (positive feedback)
Describe the pathway of platelet plug formation
Injury to lining of a vessel exposes fibers and platelets adhere. The fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells and platelets forming the clot. Releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky and platelet plug forms.
What is coagulation
❤️Reinforce his platelet plug with fibrin threads.
❤️Blood transformed from liquid to gel.
❤️Series of reaction use 13 clotting factors.
❤️Clotting factor 1 to 13 are mostly soluble plasma proteins made a liver. ❤️Vitamin K is needed to synthesize four of them
what is the first phase of coagulation
Prothrombin activator formed in both intrinsic (contact activation) and extrinsic (tissue factor) pathway
What is the second phase of coagulation
Prothrombin (plasma protein) converted to enzyme thrombin
What is the third phase of coagulation
Thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen (soluble plasma protein) into fibrin (insoluble plasma protein). Forms a fibrin and protein mesh stabilizing the internal platelet clot.
Upon repair of an injury what happens to the coagulated factors
Upon repair other factors dissolve fibrin clot through fibrinolysis
What is a normal clotting time
3 to 5 minutes
How do you decrease clotting time
Use gauze which is a contact material to serve as a foundation for the clot
What are factors that increase clotting time
❤️Lack of vitamin K. ❤️Liver disorders. ❤️Hemophilia. ❤️Thrombocytopenia. ❤️Lack of blood calcium.
What is immunity mean
Resistance to disease
What is the immune system do
Keep pathogens out. destroys them if they get in. Body recognizes self from nonself
What is an autoimmune disorder
Disorder where the body does not recognize itself
What is considered the innate defenses
First and second line of defense
What is considered acquired or adoptive defenses
The third line of defense which is composed of humoral immunity or cellular immunity
What is the first line of defense considered. And what makes up it
Nonspecific physical and chemical surface barrier. The skin and mucous membranes make it up
What is the second line of defense considered and what makes it up
Nonspecific internal cellular and chemical Defense. It is made up of Phagocytes,natural killer cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever
What is the third line of defense considered and what makes up it
Immune response. Humoral immunity which is B cells and cellular immunity which is T cells
What does the humoral immunity involve
Involves anti-bodies made by B cells
What does cellular immunity involve
Involve cytotoxic T cells
Describe skin which is the first line of physical surface barriers
It is stratified, keratinized and relatively dry. Tight junctions seal epithelial cells together
Describe mucosa which is the first line of physical surface barriers
Mucus traps dust and pathogens. Cillia of upper respiratory tract move mucus toward mouth to be coughed or swallowed
Describe acidity which is the first line of chemical surface barriers
Skin, stomach, vagina, urinary tract. Acidity inhibits growth of many microbes
Describe sebum which is the first line of chemical surface barriers
Some lipids released by sebaceous glands have antimicrobial properties
Describe enzymes which is part of the first line of chemical surface barriers
Lysozymes in tears and saliva. Pepcin and proteases in G.I. tract. Antimicrobial proteins called defensins which are secreted by the skin and the mucous membrane
Describe the second line of internal defense
Defensive cells which are phagocytes and natural killer cells. Antimicrobial proteins. Inflammatory response. Fever.
What are neutrophils
Phagocytes. Most abundant of white blood cells (50 to 70%). Short-lived and do not return to blood
Describe macrophages
Develop from monocytes. Most effective.
Define free macrophages
Wander through tissue spaces
Define fixed macrophages
Permanent residents of many organs such as the lungs, liver, nerves, lymph nodes
Describe the mechanism of phagocytosis
Phagocyte engulfs pathogens and toxins. Phagocyte must adhere to cell or substance.
How can bacteria evade adherence from a macrophage
Have a capsule.
What is opsonization
Marks pathogens by coating it with complement proteins which is a type of antimicrobial proteins. Phagocytes are assisted in recognizing by B cells which are making the anti-body specific to this bacterial strain
Describe the natural killer cells
Non-phagocytic. Large granule lymphocytes. Similar to cytotoxic T cells but nonspecific in their targets. Attack cells that lack self cell surface receptors which Are MHC molecules. Also secrete chemicals that enhance inflammatory response
How do natural killer cells Attack cells
Release proteins called perforins which form pores in target cells. Then release more chemicals into cells which induce apoptosis in cancer cells and virus-infected cells
What is the inflammatory response
Triggered when tissue is damaged. Benefits is that it prevents the spread of pathogen or toxins which alerts the third line of defense
What are the four signs of acute inflammation
Redness. Heat. Sweating. Pain
What is cellulitis
Inflammation of the subdermal tissues
Describe inflammatory response
Chemicals are released by cells which trigger inflammatory response. Injured mast cells release histamine and microphages, NK cells and tissue cells release other chemicals.
What is the actual inflammatory response
Dilation of local arterioles.
Cause redness and heat of inflamed region.
Make capillaries leaky which causes increased permeability. Fluid enters tissues causing swelling.
Attracts leukocytes to area by chemotaxis
What is the first stages of clot formation
. Blood vessels widen which causes redness. Bloodflow carries defensive cells and chemicals to damaged tissue and remove the toxins
What is the second stage in clot formation
Heat. Increases metabolic rate of cells in the injured area to speed healing
What is the third stage in clot formation
Swelling. Fluid containing defensive chemicals, blood clotting factors, oxygen, nutrients, defensive cells seep into the injured area
What is the fourth stage of clot formation
Pain. Capillaries become more permeable. Movements hampered allowing the injured area to heal
What is the fifth stage of clot formation
Complement destroys bacteria
What is the sixth stage of clot formation
Phagocytose engulfs the bacteria
What is the seventh stage of clot formation
Clot formation prevents loss of blood
What is diapedesis
It’s the movement of leukocytes out of capillaries . They squeeze between endothelial cells
What are interferons
Proteins released by virus-infected cells which prevent healthy cells from being infected by a virus. They activate microphages and natural killer cells. They are non-virus specific. Used medically as antivirals and cancer and viral disorders
What are complement proteins
20 plasma proteins that circulate in the blood and then in an inactive form
What are the three major mechanisms for destroying foreign substances
❤️stimulate inflammatory response and chemotaxis.
❤️enhance phagocytosis via opsonization.
❤️kill bacteria and other foreign cells directly via compliment fixation and cytolysis
What is the classical complement pathway
Activated by anti-bodies coding the target cell
What is the lectin complement pathway
Activated by lectin’s binding to specific sugars on micro organisms surface
What is the alternative complement pathway
Activated spontaneously. Lack of inhibitors on micro organisms surface allows process to proceed
What is the opsonization complement pathway
Coats pathogen surface which enhances phagocytosis
What is the inflammation complement pathway
Stimulates histamine release increases blood vessel permeability and attracts phagocytes by chemotaxis.
What happens when complement components are active
Macs form from active complement components that insert into the target cell membrane creating pores that can lyse the target cell
What is a fever or pyrexia
❤️Abnormally high body temperature. ❤️Systemic response to invading microorganisms.
❤️Leukocytes and macrophages exposed to foreign substances secrete pyrogens.
❤️Pyrogens act on the bodies thermostat in hypothalamus raising setpoint for body’s temperature greater than 37
What are the benefits of moderate fever
Causes liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc which is needed by micro organisms to grow. Increases metabolic rate which makes a faster repair
What are three characteristics of the third line of defense
- specific: recognizes and targets specific pathogens or foreign molecules.
- memory: remembers past pathogens so response will be faster next time.
- self tolerant: can distinguish self from nonself and won’t attack own tissues
What is the specificity and memory of the immune system due to
The B lymphocytes and the T lymphocytes
Where do B lymphocytes or B cells mature
Mature in bone marrow
Where do you T lymphocytes or T cells mature
In the thymus gland
Where do stem cells develop from
In bone marrow or in fetal liver
What are antigens
Anti-body generators.
Substances that can stimulate B or T cells and provoke an immune response.
Most antigens are large complex molecules not normally found in the body however sometimes benign substances of self cells are treated as antigens
What are antigenic determinants
Epitopes. The part of an antigen that causes an immune response.
Antibodies and lymphocyte receptors bind to them.
Most pathogenic antigens have numerous antigenic determinants.
How is the body self tolerant and able to recognize its own cells
All nucleated cells have a molecular tag that identifies them as self. MHC molecules. Foreign cells have different tags. Only identical twins have the same MHC molecules. A self MHC marker labels the body cells as self
Describe MHC molecules
Used by infected cells and macrophages use to present antigens to immune system cells. Lymphocytes and macrophages is only bind to antigens presented on MHC proteins.
What is the humoral (antibody mediated) immunity
B cells make antibodies against specific pathogens or toxins
What is cellular Immunity
T cells kill specific cells directly or indirectly. Also macrophages act as antigen presenting cells which present the antigens of pathogens they phagocytized
What are anti-bodies
Proteins produced by plasma B cells which are short-lived. Circulate in body fluids. Bond to antigens marking it for destruction by Phagocytes or complements. Memory B cells remains in circulation once antibodies disappear.
How do killer cytotoxic T cells kill directly
By killing infected or cancerous cells
How do helper T cells kill indirectly
By releasing chemicals that enhance inflammatory response or by activating other lymphocytes or macrophages to kill affected cell.
How do you suppressor or regulatory T cells work
Keep immune system a check through negative feedback
What is the immunological memory
The Primal immune response. Clonal selection upon first antigen exposure. The lag Is 3 to 6 days. Peek antibody levels at 10 days and then they decline
What is the secondary immune response
Re exposure to same antigen gives more prolonged, more effective response. Antibody levels peak into to three days at much higher levels and remain high for weeks
What is active humoral immunity
Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce specific antibodies against them.
- Naturally acquired: which is a response to bacteria infection
- Artificially acquired: a response to vaccine of dead pathogens
What is passive humoral immunity
Occurs when the antibodies are introduced into the body. Protection immediate but ends when anti-bodies naturally degrade in body because of no immunological memory.
- Naturally acquired: anti-bodies delivered to feed us via placenta or infant through colostrum.
- Artificially acquired: injection of antibodies. Given when exposed to rabies.
