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Physio > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

1
Q

Scotoma

A

small blind spot

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2
Q

Are we consciously aware of everything we see?

A

no. we are only aware of part of the visual information our brain is processing

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3
Q

Sensory receptors

A

specialized cells that transduce (convert) sensory energy into neural activity

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4
Q

Do sensory receptors respond to all sensory energy?

A

nope. they respond only to a narrow band of energy within each modality’s energy spectrum

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5
Q

Vision

A

light energy is concerted into chemical energy in the photoreceptors of the retina and the chemical energy is concerted into action potentials

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6
Q

Auditory System

A

air-pressure waves are converted first into mechanical energy, which activates the auditory receptors that produce action potentials

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7
Q

Somatosensory system

A

mechanical energy activates receptor cells that are sensitive to touch, pressure or pain. Somatosensory receptors in turn generate action potentials

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8
Q

Taste and Olfaction

A

various chemical molecules carried by the air or contained in food fit themselves into receptors of various shapes to activate action potentials

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9
Q

Human sensory abilities

A

are average

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10
Q

Receptive field

A

region of the visual world that stimulates a receptor cell or neuron

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11
Q

Photoreceptor cells

A

in the eye; each one points in a slightly different direction and thus has a unique receptive field

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12
Q

What does the brain do with receptive fields

A

identify sensory information, contrast information from each receptor field, help locate sensory events in space

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13
Q

Optic flow

A

streaming of visual stimuli that accompanies an observer’s forward movement through space

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14
Q

Auditory Flow

A

change in sound heard as a person moves past a sound source or asa sound source moves past a person

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15
Q

Usefulness of auditory and optic flow

A

tell us how fast we are going, whether we are moving or if the world is moving, what direction (straight, up, down) we are moving

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16
Q

Receptor density

A

determines the sensitivity of a sensory system

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17
Q

Color photoreceptors

A

small, densely packed to make sensitive color discrimination in bright light

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18
Q

black-white vision receptors

A

larger, more scattered, extremely sensitive to light

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19
Q

neural relays

A

all receptors connect to the cortex through a sequence of 3-4 intervening neurons; can modify information at different stages –> sensory system can mediate different responses

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20
Q

Location of relays

A

varies, some in brainstem, spinal cord, neocortex

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21
Q

Layers of neural relays

A

at each level a relay allows a sensory system to produce relevant actions that define the hierarchy of our motor behavior

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22
Q

Perceptions of speech sounds

A

influenced by the facial gestures of a speaker

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23
Q

Sensory coding

A

all sensory info from all systems is encoded by action potentials that travel along peripheral nerves in the somatic nervous system until they enter the spinal cord or brain and from there on nerve tracts within the CNS

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24
Q

How do we differentiate sensations?

A

different sensations are processed at distinct regions of cortex; learn through experience to distinguish them; each sensory system has a preferential link with certain kinds of reflex movements

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25
Q

synesthesia

A

mixing of the senses

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26
Q

topographic map

A

spatially organized neural representation of the external world

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27
Q

How many primary cortical areas do mammals have for each sensory system?

A

at least 1

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28
Q

Sensation

A

registration of physical stimuli from the environment by the sensory organs

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29
Q

perception

A

subjective interpretation of sensations by the brain

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30
Q

What sense does the brain devote most to?

A

vision

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31
Q

Retina

A

light-sensitive surface at the back of the back of the eye consisting of neurons and photoreceptor cells; initiates neural activity

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32
Q

how does light travel into the eye?

A

light–> pupil –> eye–> retina at the back of the eye

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33
Q

photoreceptor

A

specialized type of retinal cell that transduces light into neural activitiy

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34
Q

what do the photoreceptor cells and the retina do?

A

translate light into action potentials, discriminate wavelengths so we can see colors, work in a range of light intensities

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35
Q

how do images appear on the retina?

A

upside down and backward

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36
Q

what wavelengths can we see?

A

400-700 nanometers; shortest are deep purple, longest red

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37
Q

how is the electromagnetic wavelength measured?

A

nanometers

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38
Q

sclera

A

forms the eyeball; the white of the eye

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39
Q

cornea

A

eye’s clear outer covering

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40
Q

iris

A

colored part; opens and closes to allow more or less light through a hole

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41
Q

pupil

A

hole

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42
Q

lens

A

focuses light

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43
Q

fovea

A

center of the retina; region of sharpest vision and has the densest distribution of photoreceptors specialized for color

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44
Q

optic disc

A

where blood vessels enter the eye and the axons that form the optic nerve leave the eye; has no receptors and thus forms the blind spot; conveys information from the eye to the brain

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45
Q

blind spot

A

region of the retina (the optic disc) where axons forming the optic nerve leave the eye and where blood vessels enter and leave; has no photoreceptors= blind

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46
Q

cornea & lens

A

both bend the light coming into the eye

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47
Q

normal vision

A

the lens focuses incoming light directly on the retina

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48
Q

myopia

A

can’t bring distant objects into clear focus because the focal point of light falls short of the retina; caused by round eyeball–> elongated or excessive curvature of the front of the cornea

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49
Q

hyperopia

A

can’t focus on nearby objects because the focal point of light falls beyond the retina; eyeball may be too short or the lens too flat

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50
Q

periphery

A

vision is not as good as in the center

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51
Q

papilloedema

A

swollen disc

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52
Q

optic neuritis

A

inflammation of the optic nerve

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53
Q

rod

A

photoreceptor specialized for functioning at low light levels; cylindrically shaped at one end, longer, more numerous

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54
Q

cone

A

photoreceptor specialized for color and high visual acuity; tapered at one end, shorter, not sensitive to dim light, less numerous

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55
Q

what happens when light strikes a photoreceptor?

A

it triggers a series of chemical reactions that lead to a change in the membrane potential (electrical charge) that leads to a change in the release of neurotransmitters onto nearby neurons

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56
Q

are rods and cones evenly distributed?

A

no; fovea only has cones, but cone density drops dramatically beyond the fovea

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57
Q

how many cone pigments are there?

A

3; each cone has one

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58
Q

how many total pigments do we have?

A

4; 3 from cones and 1 from rods

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59
Q

what do cone pigments respond to?

A

a range of frequencies

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60
Q

How are cones distributed?

A

randomly across the retina–> color perception constant across visual field

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61
Q

Red cone

A

gene carried in x chromosome

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62
Q

what do photoreceptors connect to?

A

connected to two layers of retinal neurons

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63
Q

first retinal layers

A

contains three types of cells (bipolar, horizontal, amacrine)

64
Q

horizontal cells

A

link photoreceptors with bipolar cells

65
Q

amacrine cells

A

link bipolar cells with the cells of the second neural layer

66
Q

what is the second neural layer?

A

retinal ganglion cells

67
Q

retinal ganglion cells

A

type of retinal neurons with axons that bundle at the optic disc and leave the eye to form the optic nerve

68
Q

magnocellular (M) cell

A

large-celled visual-system neuron that is sensitive to moving; input from rods, sensitive to light not color

69
Q

parvocellular (P) cell

A

small-celled visual-system neuron that is sensitive to form and color differences; input from cones, sensitive to color

70
Q

Optic chiasm

A

junction of the optic nerve, one from each eye, at which the axons from the nasal (inside–nearer the nose) halves of the retinas cross to the opposite side of the brain

71
Q

Do the fibers from the optic nerve enter the same side of the brain?

A

the left half of each optic nerve goes to the left side of the brain and the right half goes to the brain’s right side

72
Q

nasal retina

A

the medial path of each retina crosses to the opposite side

73
Q

temporal retina

A

lateral path, goes straight back on the same side

74
Q

Geniculostriate system

A

projections from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex; formed by all of the P ganglion cell axons and some M ganglion cells

75
Q

striate cortex

A

primary visual cortex (V1) is in the occipital lobe; its striped appearance when stained gives it this name

76
Q

tectopulvinar system

A

projections from the retina to the superior colliculus to the pulvinar (thalamus) to the parietal and temporal visual areas; eye–>tectum–> pulvinar

77
Q

retinohypothalamic tract

A

neural route formed by axons of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus; allows light to entrain the rhythmic activity of the SCN; third visual pathway

78
Q

are retinal ganglion cells photosensitive?

A

1-3% act as photoreceptors

79
Q

role of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells

A

regulating circadian rhythms; pupillars reflex

80
Q

Visual pathways

A

striate cortex–> temporal lobe (ventral stream) OR parietal lobe (dorsal stream)

81
Q

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

A

in the thalamus; has 6 layers; projections from the two eyes go to different layers

82
Q

Layers 2, 3, 5 of LGN

A

receive fibers from the ipsilateral eye

83
Q

Layers 1, 4, 6 of LGN

A

receive fibers from the contralateral eye

84
Q

Where do axons from P cells go?

A

layers 3-6 (parvocellular layers); process color/form

85
Q

Where do axons from M cells go?

A

laters 1 and 2 (magnocellular layers); process information about movement

86
Q

cortical column

A

cortical organization that represents a functional unit six cortical layers deep and approximately .5 mm square and that is perpendicular to the cortical surface

87
Q

what makes up the tectopulvinar pathway?

A

remaining M cells; send their axons to superior colliculus (tectum)

88
Q

tectum

A

produce orienting movements–detect the location of stimuli and shift the eyes toward stimuli

89
Q

where does the superior colliculus send information?

A

region of the thalamus called the pulvinar

90
Q

Pulvinar

A

two divisions; medial pulvinar (sends connections to the parietal lobe) and lateral pulvinar (sends connections to the temporal lobe)—> “Where” function

91
Q

occipital lobe

A

composed of at least 6 different visual regions: V1, V2, V3, V3A, V4, V5

92
Q

V1

A

striate cortex; is the primary visual cortex

93
Q

extrastriate cortex

A

remaining visual areas (outside striate) of the occipital lobe; secondary visual cortex

94
Q

primary visual cortex (V1)

A

striate cortex that receives input from the lateral geniculate nucleus

95
Q

blob

A

region in the visual field that contains color-sensitive neurons, as revealed by staining for cytochrome oxidase

96
Q

neurons in blobs

A

take part in color perceptions

97
Q

neurons in interblobs

A

participate in form and motion perception

98
Q

what happens when info arrives at V1?

A

info arrives from the p-cell and m-cell pathways of the geniculostriate system and is segregated into types of info (color, form, motion)

99
Q

what happens when information in V1 is broken down by type?

A

goes from region V1 to V2–inputs remain segregated

100
Q

what happens in V2?

A

thick strips and pale zones receive the segregated input

101
Q

what happens after V2?

A

pathways proceed to other occipital regions and then to the parietal and temporal lobes

102
Q

ventral and dorsal streams

A

simple records of color, form, and motion are assembled

103
Q

fusiform face area (FFA)

A

part of temporal lobe; specialized for recognizing faces

104
Q

parahippocampal place area (PPA)

A

part of temporal lobe; analyzes landmarks

105
Q

lateral intraparietal area (LIP)

A

part of parietal lobe; related to eye movements

106
Q

anterior intraparieta area (AIP)

A

part of parietal lobe; visual control of grasping

107
Q

facial agnosia

A

prosopagnosia; damage to FFA; face blindness–the inability to recognize faces

108
Q

visual field

A

region of the visual world that is seen by the eyes

109
Q

where does information from visual fields go?

A

input from right visual field goes to the left hemisphere, etc.; brain can easily determine whether visual information is located to the left or right

110
Q

how do retinal ganglion cells receive information?

A

bipolar cells from several photoreceptors

111
Q

ganglion cell’s receptive field

A

the region of the retina on which it is possible to influence that cell’s firing

112
Q

where on the retina does light hit?

A

light from bottom (hits top); light from top (hits bottom)

113
Q

LGN

A

each LGN cell has a receptive field–region of the retina that influences its activity. if two adjacent retinal ganglion cells synapse on a single LGN cell, the receptive field of the LGN cell will be the sum of the two ganglion cell’s receptive fields

114
Q

does the LGN projection to the striate cortex (V1) maintain spatial info?

A

yes

115
Q

receptive field in cortex

A

cells in the cortex have much larger receptive fields than those of retinal ganglion cells

116
Q

Jerison’s Principle of Proper Mass

A

sates that the amount of neural tissue responsible for a particular function is equivalent to the amount of neural processing required for that function

117
Q

relationship between sensory areas and cortical representation

A

sensory areas that have more cortical representation provide a more-detailed creation of the external world

118
Q

Cells along the midline

A

look at adjacent places in the visual field; collosal connections between such cells zip the two visual fields together by combing their receptive fields to overlap at the midline. the two fields become 1

119
Q

excitation and inhibition

A

the same cell may react differently depending on the stimulus; response is selective

120
Q

neurons in the retina

A

do not respond to shape–> only light

121
Q

retinal ganglion cells

A

a spot of light falling in the central circle of the receptive field excites some of the cells; light falling in the periphery inhibits cell; light falling across the entire field weakly increases firing rate

122
Q

on-center cells

A

retinal ganglion cells that are excited by light falling in the center

123
Q

off-center cells

A

retinal ganglion cells that are excited by light falling in the periphery

124
Q

luminance contrast

A

the amount of light reflected by an object relative to its surroundings

125
Q

what do V1 cells respond to?

A

they are maximally excited by bars of light oriented in a particular direction rathe than by spots of light; are orientation detectors; their on/off receptive field is rectangular

126
Q

simple cells

A

visual cortex cells that have a rectangular receptive field

127
Q

hpercomplex cell

A

maximally responsive to moving bars but also has a strong inhibitory area at one end of its receptive field

128
Q

complex cell

A

maximally excited by bars of light moving in a particular direction through a visual field

129
Q

ocular-dominance column

A

functional column in the visual cortex maximally responsive to information coming from one eye

130
Q

processing shape in temporal cortex

A

TE neurons; maximally excited by complex visual stimuli, such as faces or hands, and can be remarkably specific in their responsiveness

131
Q

TE neurons

A

responds to complex features: has a combination of orientation, size, color, texture

132
Q

how are objects represented?

A

by activity of many neurons with slightly varying stimulus specificity; these neurons are grouped together into a column

133
Q

stimulus equivalence

A

recognizing an object as remaining the same despite being viewed from different orientations

134
Q

Temporal lobe’s role in visual processing

A

not determined genetically but is subject to experience

135
Q

neurons in Primary visual cortex

A

are not modified by experience–> genetically programmed

136
Q

primary colors or light

A

red, blue, green

137
Q

impression of colors

A

light of different wavelengths stimulates the three different cone receptor types in different ways–> the ratio of this activity of these receptor types creates our impression of colors

138
Q

trichromatic theory

A

explanation of color vision based on the coding of three primary colors: red, green, and blue

139
Q

what happens if all cones are equally active?

A

we see white

140
Q

what does the trichromatic theory predict?

A

if we lack one type of cone receptor we cannot process as many colors as we could with all three

141
Q

protanopia

A

lack of red cones

142
Q

deuteranopia

A

lack of green cones

143
Q

tritanopia

A

lack of blue cones

144
Q

opponent process

A

explanation of color vision that emphasizes the importance of the apparently opposing pairs of colors: red versus green, blue versus yellow

145
Q

color constancy

A

phenomenon whereby the perceived color of an object tends to remain constant relative to other colors, regardless of changes in illumination

146
Q

homonymous hemianopia

A

blindness of an entire left or right visual field; caused by cuts in optic tract, LGN or V1

147
Q

quadrantanopia

A

blindness of one quadrant of visual field

148
Q

scotoma

A

small blind spot in the visual field caused by migraine or by a small lesion of the visual cortex

149
Q

cells in the visual parietal cortex during anesthetia

A

are not active

150
Q

nystagmus

A

constantly occurring eye motion

151
Q

visual-form agnosia

A

inability to recognize objects or drawings of objects

152
Q

achromatopsia

A

color agnosia

153
Q

optic ataxia

A

deficit in the visual control of reaching and other movements

154
Q

Damage to parietal cortex (dorsal stream)

A

can see perfectly well, yet they cannot accurately guide their movements on the basis of visual information

155
Q

function of dorsal stream

A

guidance of movement

156
Q

damage to the ventral stream

A

cannot see objects but can guide their movements to objects on the basis of visual information

157
Q

function of ventral stream

A

perception of objects

Physio (20 decks)

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