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Physio > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

activates skeletal muscles in SNS; inhibits heart beats; may inhibit OR excite organs in the autonomic system

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2
Q

Epinephrine

A

AKA Adrenaline; mobilizes body during flight or fight

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3
Q

Norepinephrine

A

AKA Noradrenaline; accelerates heart beat in mammals

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4
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

chemical released by a neuron onto a target with an excitatory or inhibitory effect

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5
Q

What are neurotransmitters outside of the nervous system called?

A

Hormones

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6
Q

What disease does Dopamine play a role in?

A

Parkinson’s Disease

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7
Q

How do electron microscopes work?

A

Projecting a beam of electrons through a very thin slice of tissue. The varying structure of the tissue scatters the beam onto a reflective surface where it leaves an image

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8
Q

Synaptic Vesicles

A

Organelle consisting of a membrane structure that encloses a quantum or neurotransmitter

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9
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

disorder of the motor system correlated with a loss of dopamine in the brain and characterized by tremors, muscular rigidity, and reduction in voluntary movement

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10
Q

Dopamine

A

Amine neurotransmitter; plays a role in coordinating movement, attention, learning, and behaviors that are reinforcing

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11
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

Gap that separates the presynaptic membrane from the postsynaptic membrane

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12
Q

Chemical Synapse

A

junction where messenger molecules are released from one neuron to excite the next neuron

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13
Q

Presynaptic Membrane

A

encloses molecules that transmit chemical messages; forms the axon terminal

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14
Q

Postsynaptic Membrane

A

contains receptor molecules that receive chemical messages

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15
Q

Microtubule

A

Transport structure that carries substances to the axon terminal

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16
Q

Mitochondrion

A

Organelle that provides the cell with energy

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17
Q

Storage Granule

A

Large compartment that holds synaptic vesicles

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18
Q

Postsynaptic Receptor

A

site to which a neurotransmitter molecule binds

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19
Q

Gap Junction

A

electrical synapse; where the prejunction and the postjunction cell membranes are fused. ion channels in on cell membrane connect to ion channels in the other membrane, forming a pore that allows ions to pass directly from one neuron to the next

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20
Q

Why do we rely mostly on chemical synapses when gap junctions send messages more quickly?

A

chemical synapses are flexible in controlling whether a message is passed from one neuron to the next, they can amplify or diminish a signal sent from one neuron to the next, and can alter their signals to mediate learning

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21
Q

Neurotransmission Steps

A
  1. Synthesis
  2. Release
  3. Receptor Action
  4. Inactivation
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22
Q

Neurotransmission Steps: 1. Synthesis

A

some neurotransmitters are transported from the cell nucleus to the terminal button and others are made from building blocks imported into the terminal and are packaged into vesicles there

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23
Q

Neurotransmission Steps: 2. Release

A

In response to the action potential, the transmitter is released across the membrane by exocytosis; Ca+ flows in and binds to protein calmodulin and causes two chemical reactions–1. releases vesicles bound to presynaptic membrane 2. releases vesicles bound to microfilamens in the axon terminal

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24
Q

Neurotransmission Steps: 3. Receptor Action

A

The transmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to a receptor

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25
Q

Neurotransmission Steps: 4. Inactivation

A

The transmitter is either taken back into the terminal or inactivated in the synaptic cleft

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26
Q

Transporters

A

protein molecules that pump substances across the cell membrane; absorb required precursor chemicals from the blood supply for neurotransmitter synthesis

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27
Q

Chemical Synapse

A

Junction at which messenger molecules are released when stimulated by an action potential

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28
Q

Presynaptic Membrane

A

Membrane on the transmitter-output side of a synapse (axon terminal); rich in voltage-sensitive calcium channels (Ca+)

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29
Q

Postsynaptic Membrane

A

Membrane on the transmitter-input side of a synapse (dendritic spine)

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30
Q

Storage Granule

A

Membranous compartment that holds several vesicles containing a neurotransmitter

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31
Q

Gap Junction (electrical Synapse)

A

Fused prejunction and postjunction cell membrane in which connected ion channels form a pore that allows ions to pass directly from one neuron to the next

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32
Q

Transmitter-Activated Receptors

A

Protein that has a binding site for a specific neurotransmitter and is embedded in the membrane of a cell

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33
Q

In what ways can receptors affect the postsynaptic cell?

A
  1. Depolarize the postsynaptic membrane–> excitatory action on the postsynaptic neuron
  2. Hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane–> inhibitory action on the postsynaptic neuron
  3. initiate other chemical reactions
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34
Q

Autoreceptors

A

self-receptor in a neural membrane that responds to the neurotransmitters released from their own axon terminals

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35
Q

Quantum

A

amount of neurotransmitter, equivalent to the contents of a single synaptic vesicle, that produces a just observable change in postsynaptic electric potential

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36
Q

What determines the amount of quanta released?

A
  1. amount of Ca+ that enters the axon terminal

2. the number of vesicles docked at the membrane, waiting to be released

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37
Q

What are the four ways neurotransmitter deactivation can take place?

A
  1. Diffusion
  2. Degradation
  3. Reuptake
  4. Glial Cell
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38
Q

Diffusion

A

some of the neurotransmitter simply diffuses away from the synaptic cleft and is no longer available to bind to receptors

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39
Q

Degradation

A

by enzymes in the synaptic cleft

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40
Q

Reuptake

A

Membrane transporter proteins specific to that transmitter may bring the transmitter back to the presynaptic axon terminal for subsequent reuse

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41
Q

Glial Uptake

A

some neurotransmitters are taken up by neighboring glial cells

42
Q

Types of Synapses

A
  1. Dendrondentritic
  2. Axodendritic
  3. Axoextracellular
  4. Axosomatic
  5. Axosynaptic
  6. Axoaxonic
  7. Axosecretory
43
Q

Dendrondentritic

A

dendrites send messages to other dendrites

44
Q

Axodendritic

A

axon terminal of the neuron synapses on dendritic spine of another

45
Q

Axoextracellular

A

terminal with no specific target. Secrets transmitter into extracellular fluid

46
Q

Axosomatic

A

axon terminal ends on cell body

47
Q

Axosynaptic

A

axon terminal ends on another terminal

48
Q

Axoaxonic

A

axon terminal ends on another axon

49
Q

Axosecretory

A

axon terminal ends on tiny blood vessel and secretes transmitter directly into blood

50
Q

Axomuscular Synapse

A

axon synapses with a muscle end plate, releasing acetylcholine

51
Q

Axodendritic Synapse

A

axon terminal of a neuron ends on a dendrite or dendritic spine of another neuron

52
Q

Type I Synapses

A

excitatory in their actions; located on shafts or spines of dendrites; synaptic vesicles are rounded; material on pre and postsynaptic membranes is dense; wide synaptic cleft

53
Q

Type II Synapses

A

inhibitory in their actions; located on a cell body; synaptic vesicles are flattened; material on pre and postsynaptic membranes is sparse; narrow synaptic cleft

54
Q

Four criteria for identifying neurotransmitters

A
  1. chemical must be synthesized in the neuron or otherwise present in it
  2. when the neuron is active, the chemical must be released and produce a response in some target
  3. the same response must be obtained when the chemical is experimentally placed on the target
  4. a mechanism must exist for removing the chemical from its site of action after its work is done
55
Q

Putative Transmitter

A

“supposed”; a suspect chemical that has not yet been shown to meet all the criteria

56
Q

Renshaw Loop

A

all motor neuron axons leaving the spine use ACh. Each axon has an axon collateral within the spinal cord that synapses on a CNS interneuron. Interneuron synapses back on the motor neuron’s cell body

57
Q

Why does the Renshaw Loop exist?

A

enables the motor neuron to inhibit itself from becoming overexcited

58
Q

Modern criteria for a neurotransmitter

A
  1. carries messages from one neuron to another by influencing the voltage on the postsynaptic membrane
  2. have little effect on membrane voltage; have a common message carrying function
  3. delivers message to the postsynaptic membrane and also sends a message the opposite direction to influence the release or reuptake of transmitters
59
Q

What are the three classes of neurotransmitters?

A
  1. small-molecule transmitters
  2. peptide transmitters
  3. transmitter gasses
60
Q

Small-Molecule Transmitters

A

ACh; quick acting; synthesized from dietary nutrients and packaged in axon terminals; can be quickly replaced at the presynaptic membrane; influenced by diet

61
Q

Histamine

A

type of small-molecule transmitter; control of arousal and of waking; can cause constriction of smooth muscles

62
Q

Acetylcholine Synthesis

A

choline + acetate; after ACh has been released into the cleft, an enzyme AChE detaches ACh and they are taken back into the presynaptic terminal

63
Q

Amine Synthesis

A

precursor chemical is tyrosine is transformed by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase into L-dopa, which is then converted into dopamine, norepinephine and then epinephrine

64
Q

Dopamine

A

Amine; has a role in Parkinson’s

65
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Amine; excitatory transmitter at the amphibian heart

66
Q

Epinephrine

A

Amine; excitatory transmitter at the mammalian heart

67
Q

Rate-limiting factor

A

any enzyme that is in limited supply, thus restricting the pace at which a chemical can be synthesized

68
Q

Serotonin Synthesis

A

derived from the amino acid tryptophan

69
Q

Serotonin

A

role in regulating mood and aggression, appetite and arousal, respiration, and the perception of pain

70
Q

Amino Acid Synthesis

A

GABA is formed by a removal of COOH from the glutamate molecule

71
Q

Glutamate

A

amino acid neurotransmitter that excites neurons

72
Q

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

A

amino acid neurotransmitter that inhibits neurons

73
Q

Neuropeptide Transmitters

A

synthesized through the translation of mRNA from instructions contained in the neuron’s DNA, are multifunction chains of amino acids that act as neurotransmitters; most are made in the ribosomes (some in the axon terminal) packed by golgi bodies and transported by microtubules to axon terminals; activate synaptic receptors that indirectly influence cell structure and function

74
Q

Neuropepties

A

act as hormones that respond to stress, enable a mother to bond with child, regulate eating/drinking/pleasure/pan, contributes to learning

75
Q

Opioid Peptides

A

parts of the amino acid chains of some neuropeptides that deal with pleasure/pain–similar in structure to opium/morphine

76
Q

Transmitter Gases

A

synthesized in the cell as needed. After synthesis, each gas diffuses away easily crossing the cell membrane; activate metabolic processes in cells; NO and CO

77
Q

Nitric Acid

A

type of transmitter gas; controls muscles in intestinal walls, dilates blood vessels in active parts of the brain (allowing them to receive more blood), producing erections

78
Q

Carbon Monoxide

A

Gas that acts as a neurotransmitter in the activation of cellular metabolism

79
Q

Ionotropic Receptor

A

embedded membrane protein that acts as 1. binding site for a neurotransmitter and 2. a pore that regulates ion flow to directly and rapidly change membrane voltage

80
Q

Metabotropic Receptor

A

embedded membrane protein, with a binding site for neurotransmitter but no pore, linked to a G protein that can affect other receptors or act with second messengers to affect other cellular processes

81
Q

G Protein

A

guanyl-nucleotide-binding protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor that when activated, binds to other proteins; three subunits: alpha, beta, gamma

82
Q

Second Messenger

A

chemical that carries a message to initiate a biochemical process when activated by a neurotransmitter (the first messenger)

83
Q

What are second messengers able to do?

A
  1. bind to a membrane channel, causing the channel to change its structure and thus alter ion flow through the membrane
  2. initiate a reaction that causes protein molecules within the cell to become incorporated into the cell membrane (ex. formation of new ion channels)
  3. instruct the cell’s DNA to initiate or cease the production of a protein
84
Q

Cholinergic Neurons

A

aka motor neurons; ACh is main neurotransmitter; are excitatory at skeletal muscles–> produce muscular contraction

85
Q

Parasympathetic Neurons

A

CNS ACh neurons synapse with parasympathetic ACh neurons to prepare the organs for rest and digest

86
Q

Sympathetic Neurons

A

ACh neurons in the CNS synapse with NE to prepare for fight or flight; NE increases heart rate and turns down digestive functions

87
Q

Activating System

A

neural pathways that coordinate brain activity through a single neurotransmitter; cell bodies are located in a nucleus in the brainstem and axons are distributed through a wide region to the brain

88
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

degenerative brain disorder related to aging that first appears as progressive memory loss and later develops into generalized dementia

89
Q

Cholinergic System

A

plays a role in normal waking behavior and is thought to function in attention and in memory

90
Q

Dopaminergic System

A

operates on two distinct pathways (nigostriatial dopaminergic –> movement) (mesolimbic dopaminergic –> addiction)

91
Q

Excessive DA activity

A

plays a role in schizophrenia

92
Q

Noradrenergic Neuron

A

neuron using noradrenaline (epinephrine) as its transmitter; may play a role in learning; facilitate normal brain development; role in organizing movements

93
Q

Problems associated with NE

A

decreased NE–> depression
decreased NE–> ADHD
increased NE–> Mania

94
Q

Serotonergic System

A

maintains waking EEG; wakefulness; learning;

95
Q

problems associated with SE

A

decreased SE–> depression
increased SE–> schizophrenia
OCD, sleep apnea, SIDS

96
Q

Learning

A

relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

97
Q

Habituation

A

learning behavior in which a response to a stimulus weakens with repeated stimulus presentations

98
Q

Sensitization

A

learning behavior in which the response to a stimulus strengthens with repeated presentations of that stimulus because the stimulus is novel or because the stimulus is stronger than normal, ex. after habituation has occured

99
Q

PTSD

A

syndrome characterized by physiological arousal symptoms related to recurring memories and dreams related to a traumatic events for months or years after the event

100
Q

Neural basis of sensitization

A

in response to an action potential traveling down the axon of the siphon sensory neuron, the potassium channels on that neuron are slower to open. K+ ions cannot repolarize the membrane as quickly as it is normal, so the action potential lasts longer than it usually would

101
Q

where does habituation take places?

A

Ca+ channels

102
Q

where does sensitization take place?

A

K+ channels

Physio (20 decks)

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