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Physio > chapter 8 > Flashcards

chapter 8 Flashcards

1
Q

development of brain and behavior

A

brain and behavior appear to develop at similar rates

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2
Q

Does the visual system develop slowly?

A

no, it develops quickly

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3
Q

What part of the brain is the last to develop?

A

frontal lobes (ability to plan efficiently, organizing daily activities)

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4
Q

Preformation

A

the idea that a human embryo is an adult miniature

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5
Q

What do early vertebrate species look like?

A

similar looking primitive head, a region with bumps or folds and a tail

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6
Q

Zygote

A

consists of a single cell; when a sperm fertilizes an egg

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7
Q

What happens after a zygote forms?

A

by the 15th day the cell begins to divide forming an embryonic disc

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8
Q

Embryonic disc

A

formed by several sheets of cells with a raised area in the middle

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9
Q

Neural Plate

A

primitive neural tissue formed by day 21; occupies part of the outermost layer of the embryonic cells.

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10
Q

Neural Groove

A

neural plate folds to form this

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11
Q

Neural tube

A

neural groove curls to form this;

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12
Q

What forms the brain’s ventricles

A

the open region in the center of the neural tube remains open and matures into the brain’s ventricles and the spinal canal

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13
Q

7 weeks into development

A

embryo begins to resemble a miniature person

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14
Q

when do gyri and sulci begin to form?

A

7 months

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15
Q

When do the genitals begin to form?

A

7th week after conception; they appear identical (indifferent) in the two sexes at this early stage

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16
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

structural difference between the sexes

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17
Q

60 days after conception

A

male and female genitals start to become distinguishable

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18
Q

testosterone

A

stimulates sexual differentiation in male embryos

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19
Q

gonadal (sex) hormones

A

prenatal exposure acts to shape male and female brains differently because these hormones activate different genes in the neurons of the two sexes

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20
Q

Neural stem cells

A

lining the neural tube have an extensive capacity for self-renewal. When a stem cell divides it produces two stem cells; one dies and the other lives to again divide

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21
Q

where do neural stem cells live?

A

line the ventricles forming the subventricular zone

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22
Q

Progenitor cells

A

precursor cells; develop from stem cells; it migrates and also can divide and produce neuroblasts and glioblasts

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23
Q

neuroblasts

A

formed from progenitor cells; form neurons

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24
Q

glioblasts

A

formed from progenitor cells; form glia

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25
Q

subventricular zone

A

lining of neural stem cells surrounding the ventricles in adults

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26
Q

When do stem cells work?

A

well into the aging brain

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27
Q

prolactin

A

neuropeptide that increases in pregnant rats; stimulates the brain to produce more neurons

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28
Q

Gene expression

A

a formerly dormant gene becomes activated, resulting in the cell making a specific protein.

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29
Q

gene methylaiton

A

common epigenetic mechanism; a methyl group (CH3) attaches to the nucleotide base cytosine lying next to guanine on the DNA sequence; resulting in the suppression of gene expressoin

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30
Q

does methylation alter gene expression?

A

yes, it can do so dramatically during development.

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31
Q

what impacts methylation?

A

prenatal stress can reduce gene methylation by 10 percent

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32
Q

what impacts cellular differentiation?

A

neighboring cells, chemicals, hormones

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33
Q

stem cell differentiation

A

a chemical signal must induce stem cells to produce progenitor cells; another chemical signal induces the progenitor cells to produce either neuroblasts or glioblasts and then a last chemical signal induce the genes to make a specific type of neuron/glia

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34
Q

neurotrophic factors

A

class of compounds that acts to support growth and differentiation in developing neurons and may act to keep certain neurons alive into adulthood

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35
Q

epidermal growth factor (EGF)

A

stimulates cells to produce progenitor cells

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36
Q

basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF or FGF-2)

A

stimulates progenitor cells to produce neuroblasts

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37
Q

Stages of brain development

A
  1. cell birth (neurogenesis; gliogenesis)
  2. cell migration
  3. cell differentiation
  4. cell maturation (dendrite and axon growth)
  5. synaptogenesis (formation of synapses)
  6. cell death and synaptic pruning
  7. myelogenesis (formation of myelin)
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38
Q

neurogenesis

A

rapid formation of neurons

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39
Q

gliogenesis

A

rapid formation of glia

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40
Q

migration

A

when cells travel to their correct locations

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41
Q

when is neurogenesis about finished?

A

after about 5 months of gestation

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42
Q

what is the exception to when neurogenesis is finished?

A

the hippocampus–> continues to develop new neurons throughout life

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43
Q

teratogens

A

chemicals that cause malformations

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44
Q

When can the human brain best cope with injury?

A

early during development; during neurogenesis. More neurons can be made to replace injured ones or perhaps existing neurons can be allocated differently

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45
Q

when does cell migration begin?

A

shortly after the first neurons are generated and continues for about 6 weeks in the cerebral cortex and longer the hippocampus

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46
Q

how to neurons migrate?

A

subventricular zone contains a primitive map of the cortex that predisposes cells formed in a certain ventricular region to migrate to a certain cortical location

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47
Q

how do cells know where the different parts of the cortex were located?

A

radial glial cells; some follow a chemical signal

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48
Q

radial glial cells

A

path-making cell that a migrating neuron follows to its appropriate destination

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49
Q

how do cortical layers develop?

A

from the inside out

50
Q

Maturing neurons

A
  1. grow dendrites to provide surface area for synapses with other cells
  2. extend their axons to appropriate targets to initiate synapse formation
51
Q

Dendrite development

A

dendritic arborization (branching) and the growth of dendritic spines

52
Q

do dendrites grow fast or slow?

A

slow

53
Q

do axons develop fast or slow?

A

fast; about 1000x as fast

54
Q

why is it good that axons develop faster than dendrites?

A

axons can contact its target cell before the cell’s dendrites are completely formed –> may play a role in dendritic differentiation and neuronal function

55
Q

Autism spectrum disorder

A

range of cognitive symptoms, from mild to severe, that characterize autism; severe symptoms include greatly impaired social interaction, a bizarre and narrow range of interests, marked abnormalities in language and communication and fixed, repetitive movements

56
Q

growth cone

A

growing tip of an axon

57
Q

filopod (filopodia)

A

process at the end of a developing axon that reaches out to search for a potential target or to sample the intercellular environment

58
Q

what are the two cues that growth cones are responsive to?

A

cell-adhesion molecules and tropic molecules

59
Q

cell-adhesion molecule (CAM)

A

a chemical molecule to which specific cells can adhere, thus aiding in migration; can attract or repel growth cones

60
Q

tropic molecules

A

signaling molecule that attracts or repels growth cones

61
Q

netrin

A

member of the only class of tropic molecules yet isolated

62
Q

thickness of the cortex

A

becomes thinner in a caudal-rostral (back to front) gradient; probably due to synaptic pruning

63
Q

how much is typically eliminated during synaptic pruning?

A

42% of all synapses in the human cortex

64
Q

neural Darwinism

A

hypothesis that the processes of cell death and synaptic pruning are, like natural selection in species, the outcome of competition among neurons for connections and metabolic resources in a neural environment

65
Q

why do neurons die?

A

because target cells produce neurotrophic factors that are absorbed by axon terminals–> function to regulate neuronal survival. (ex. nerve growth factor). If many neurons are competing for a limited amount of a neurotrophic factor only some can survive

66
Q

apoptosis

A

when neurons are deprived of a neurotrophic factor certain genes seem to be expressed–> resulting in a message for the cell to die

67
Q

does apoptosis account for synaptic pruning from cells that survive?

A

no

68
Q

synaptic pruning and language

A

young infants can discriminate speech sounds of different languages without previous experience, but this ability declines after year 1. synapses encoding speech sounds not normally encountered in an infant’s daily environment are not active simultaneously with other speech-related synapses and thus are eliminated

69
Q

when does cortex thinning take place?

A

age 5-20

70
Q

does the entire brain thin?

A

NO! major language regions show an increase in gray matter

71
Q

frontal lobe development

A

it is especially sensitive to epigenetic influences; the trajectory of frontal lobe development correlates with adult IQ

72
Q

IQ and plasticity

A

children who score highest in intelligence show the greatest plastic changes in the frontal lobe over time

73
Q

when does myelination occur?

A

begins just after birth and continues until at least 20 years of age

74
Q

Flechsig myelination hypothesis

A

earliest myelinating areas control simple movements or sensory analyses, whereas the latest myelinating areas control the highest mental functions

75
Q

infant movement: after birth

A

flexing joins of an arm (scooping)

76
Q

infant movement: 1-3 months

A

make spontaneous hand and digit movements that consist of almost all the skilled finger movements of an adult; motor babbling; movement toward objects

77
Q

infant movement: 8-11 months

A

grasping becomes more sophisticated as in the pincer grasp

78
Q

meylination and motor movements

A

a group of axons from motor-cortex neurons myelinate at about the same time that reaching and grasping with the whole hand develop. Same thing with neurons that control finger movements and the pincer grasp

79
Q

Language development

A
  1. 12 months: start to form vocab (5-10 words; doubles over next 6 months)
  2. 2 years: vocab ranges from 200-300 words
  3. 3 years: 1000 words and simple sentences
  4. 6 years: 2500 words and can understand 20,000-50,000 words
80
Q

thickening of broca’s area

A

the left inferior frontal cortex–is associated with enhanced phonological processing (understanding speech sounds)

81
Q

Jean Piaget

A

stages of development

82
Q

object permanence

A

understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight

83
Q

conservation of liquid volume

A

develops by age 7; the understanding that the amount of liquid remains constant despite the difference in appearance

84
Q

Piaget’s stages of cognitive developemtn

A
  1. sensorimotor
  2. preoperational
  3. concrete operational
  4. formal operational
85
Q

stage 1: sensorimotor

A

birth to 18-24 months; experiences the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing); object permanence and stranger anxiety

86
Q

stage 2: preoperational

A

2-6 years; represents things with words and images but lacks logical reasoning; pretend play, egocentrism, mathematical transformations

87
Q

stage 3: concrete operational

A

7-11 years; thinks logically about concrete events, grasps concrete analogies and performs arithmetical operations; conservation, mathematical transformations

88
Q

stage 4: formal operational

A

12+ years; reasons abstractly; abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning

89
Q

growth spurts

A

sporadic period of sudden growth that lasts for a finite time

90
Q

when do growth spurts occur?

A

between 3-10 months (30% increase in brain weight); age 2-4; 6-8; 10-12; 14-16+

91
Q

what leads to increase in brain weight?

A

brain growth takes place without a concurrent increase in the number of neurons SO probably due to glial cells, blood vessels, myelin and synapses

92
Q

connection between brain and behavior development

A

don’t confuse correlation with causation

93
Q

brain plasticity

A

brain is plastic in response to external events in addition to internal events (hormones, injury, genetic mutations)

94
Q

stimulating environments

A

Hebb– reasoned that people reared in stimulating environments will maximize their intellectual development whereas people raised in impoverished environments will not reach their intellectual potential

95
Q

Tactile stimulation

A

important for bonding with caregivers & stimulates brain development

96
Q

brains of animals from complex environments

A

larger, have more synapses, have more and larger astrocytes,

97
Q

Exposure to music

A

early exposure alters the brain–> perfect pitch

98
Q

chemoaffinity hypothesis

A

proposal that neurons of their axons and dendrites are drawn toward a signaling chemical that indicates the correct pathway; each cell has an identifiable biochemical label

99
Q

neuronal placement

A

is activity dependent

100
Q

amblyopia

A

condition in which vision in one eye is reduced as a result of disuse; usually caused by a failure of the two eyes to point in the same direction

101
Q

critical period

A

developmental “window” during which some event has a long-lasting influence on the brain; often referred to as a sensitive period

102
Q

imprinting

A

process that predisposes an animal to form an attachment to objects or animals at a critical period in development

103
Q

deprivation and brain development

A

depriving young animals specifically of visual input or of maternal contact has devastating consequences for their behavioral development and presumably for their brain development

104
Q

Harlow & monkeys

A

separated baby monkeys from their mothers shortly after birth and raised them in individual cages. They were unable to establish normal relations with other animals in adulthood

105
Q

Androgen

A

class of hormones that stimulates or controls masculine characteristics; released during a brief period in the course of prenatal brain development for masculinization

106
Q

masculinization

A

process by which exposure to androgens (male sex hormones) alters the brain, rendering it identifiably male

107
Q

estrogens

A

variety of sex hormones responsible for the distinguishing characteristics of the female

108
Q

testosterone

A

changes the structure of cells in many regions of the cortex, with diverse behavioral consequences that include influences on cognitive consequences

109
Q

experiences for males and females

A

can impact the brain differently due to the mediating influences of gonadal hormones

110
Q

gonadal hormones and brain developemtn

A

gonadal hormones alter the basic development of neurons, shape the nature of experience-dependent changes in the brain, and influence the structure of neurons throughout our lifetimes.

111
Q

mental disorder onset

A

peak age 14

112
Q

why do many mental disorders occur during adolescents?

A

neurobiological and associated behavioral changes linked with the period of adolescence are designed to optimize the brain for challenges that lie in adulthood but the brain’s plasticity can also make it vulnerable to psychopathologies that can last for the rest of their life

113
Q

drugs and brain development

A

prenatal exposure to drugs (of all sorts) likely impact brain development; increase in later drug use

114
Q

spina bifida

A

condition in which the genetic blueprint goes awry and the neural tube does not close completely–leads to incompletely formed spinal cord. serious motor problems

115
Q

anencephaly

A

failure of the forebrain to develop; front end of the neural tube (forms brain) does not close properly

116
Q

brains of children with ID

A

stunted dendrite growth, sparse spines

117
Q

genetic abormality

A

error of metabolism chromosomal abnormality; phenylketonuria (PKU), down syndrome

118
Q

abnormal embryonic development

A

exposure to a toxin; fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

119
Q

prenatal disease

A

infection; rubella, retardation

120
Q

birth trauma

A

anoxia (oxygen deprivation); cerebral palsy

121
Q

malnutrition

A

abnormal brain development; kwashiorkor

122
Q

environmental abnormality

A

sensory deprivation; children in Romanian orphaneges

Physio (20 decks)

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