Chapter 8-Thinking and Intelligence Flashcards
cognitive psychology
the study of thought.
thinking
the mental manipulation of the representation of info
analogical
mental representations that have some physical characteristics of objects…usually responds to images….such as pic of a violin
symbolic
abstract mental representations that don’t correspond to the physician features of objects or ideas..usually words….ex..word violin
concept
a mental representation that groups or categorizes objects, events, or relations around common themes…ex concept=musical instruments…..and objects are guitars violin, trumpet..etc`
defining attribute modeL
a category is characterized by a list of feature that determine if an object is a member of a category…example a cat is defined as having whiskers, a furry tail, four legs….but then if one is missing the fur is still a cat…so this is a model that fails to capture diff aspects we use to organize…ex…concept can fly….all birds..yet penguins are birds and cant fly…therefore problem is that its an all or none basis, suggests all category attributes are = imp, and sees all members of category as equally represented
prototype model
withing each category, there is a best example–a prototype–for that category….it allows for flexibility to include other members but doesn’t say why the prototype is the model
exemplar model
all members of a category are examples, together, they form a concept and determine category membership…no concept has a single best representation
schemas
cognitive representations that help us perceive, organize, and process info….this allows consistent concept and attributes…but downside is that it allows for stereotypes
script
schema that directs behavior over time within a situation…so expected order and results form an event
stereotype
schemas that allow for the fast, easy, processing of info about ppl based on their membership in certain groups….ex..gender schema…give socially accepted roles for men and women
reasoning
using info/knowledge to determine of a conclusion is valid or reasonable..example is Chicago humid in the summer ?
decision making
attempting to select the best alternative among several options…ex..would you rather travel to Chicago or Seattle?
problem solving
finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal..ex…figuring out that Chicago is further away and therefore more expensive so its better to travel to Seattle instead
deductive reasoning-less common
general to specific train of thought…example….all chimps are primates….all primates are mammals…therefore all chimps are mammals….your premises(ideas) must be specific to avoid error in reasoning ..example of error….nothing is better than warm pie…a few crumbs of bread are better than nothing…therefore a few crumbs are better than warm pie
inductive reasoning-more common
from specific to general reasoning…so because we experience a few crowded days at the restaurant, we think that it is always crowded..but have you really been there enough to make this generalization?
algorithms
time consuming, effortful virtually guaranteed process to make a good accurate decision,,example area formula
heuristics
mental shortcuts,efficient, risk of making a poor decision…example rues of thumb
availability heuristic decision making
a mental shortcut that occurs when ppl make misjudgement on how easily info can be brought to mind
false consensus effect
we overestimate how much others share out attributes, beliefs, and behaviors
counter-factual thinking
imagining alternatives that might have occurred , but didn’t occur…..example I would have done this if…
representativeness decision making
the cognitive bias that occurs when ppl assume the probability of an event is based on how well it matches our existing prototype….ex if more represented=more probable
anchoring and adjustment decision making
the cognitive bias that describes the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of info offered…ex buying a car…the anchor will be the price and how we view the car will then be influenced by this anchor
framing effects
the presentation of info affects how ppl perceive it…and can affect the decision making process…we would rather see the positive side of things represented…example…..80% is perceived better than 20% fat…ex rerpesenting info to emphasisze losses or gains…example…200/600 ppl will die vs 2/3 of the ppl will live…
prospect theory- tversky& khaneman
ppls wealth affects their economic choices…bc losses feel worse than gains feel good…therefore ppl will try to avoid losses always
loss aversion
bc losses feel worse than gains feel good, we avoid situations that increase the chances for loss
affective forecast
our ability to predict how we feel about something in the future…ex….we overestimate the effects of events,,,for example..we feel we are going to be sooooo happy the happiest ever if we win the talent show…but in the end its like an okay feeling only..same as for negative events..we feel we are going to feel sooo sad about not winning..but in the end we rationalize it and its not as bad…that’s why we are terrible at affective forecast
the paradox of choice
the more choices we have the less likely we are to be happy with the choice we made…its a paradox bc we think having more options is better and will make us happy..ex..jelly experiment…we are unhappy bc we think of the what if i had the chosen the other one
satisfiers
settle for the good enough…dont worry about finding something better
maximizers
always seek to make the best possible choice
hill-climbing strategy-PROblem SOlving
at each point you simple choose the option that moves you closer to your goals…example problem is trying eliminate ants from apartment…first is to determine where ants are coming from…and then to continue to follow the ants until you find it…limitation is that sometimes we must think outside the box to find solution
means-end analysis
examines the difference btw the current state and your goals state and ask what you need to get to the goal..this highlights what you need to solve the problem..ex…I’m home (current)…i need to get to Davis( future-goal)…how?..reason out you will take the bus
organization of sub goals
important to first understand the steps taken to reach a goal and go from there…ex…the tower of hanoi…and you must break the task into sub goals to be successful.
working backwards
exactly what words says…you work backwards..ex…the water lilies are growing so rapidly the rate is that they double every 24 hours….and on the first day of summer there is one lily, on the 90th day the lake is entirely covered…when will the lake be half covered??they told you that it doubles every 24hours so then the day before it must have been Half filled…so the answer is the 89thday
mental sets-obstacle for restructuring
this is an obstacle to restructuring because its.the problem solving strategy that have worked in the past …so its hard to thinking outside the box(restructuring-seeing the problem in a different way)…einstellung–attitude(side-note)
functional fixedness
mental representation about the typical functions of objects…so we cant see how else they could be used…ex..attaching a candle to a bulletin board when given a cigarette box, the candle and tacks
creativity-wallas.theory of creative process
preparation(gather info about the problem), incubation(unconscious continue working on the problem), illumination(a key idea or insight emerges), verification(confirm new idea does work and solves problem…..but is it just 4steps???
intelligence
the ability to use knowledge, make decisions, a process events and prblems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to challenges
psychometric approach-theory of intelligence–francis galton was founder……general intelligence?
it includes the g factor(general intelligence), and s factors(specific ability..ex @drawing
fluid intelligence-cattell
one of the types that make up general intelligence(g)….its information processing…such as reasoning..this is biologically based not cultural
crystallized intelligence
a second type of g…where knowledge is gained through experience…ex..vocab is learned as we go to school
theory of multiple intelligences- gardner
there are 8 diff types……linguistic, musical, logical-math…spatial, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic…but there is no way to measure this…also some are better in one way and others in a diff way
achievement-measuring intelligence
measures the current level of skills and knowledge….ex STAR testing, SAT
aptitude
measures ability on particular tasks…ex..career assessments
mental age
a child’s intellectual standing compared with same age peers(IQ)
influences on intelligence
genes, nature, nutrition(prenatal and after) breast feeding ,educational opportunities, no gender reliable difference in IQ,..but are better at diff tasks
flynn effect
dramatic increases in IQ scores in the last 100 years
stererotype threat
anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes related to ones own group leads to reduced performance….ex…tow groups told one of them told that their race usually did bad on the exam…versus another group not told anything…the group told performed worse…but other groups such as women actually did better when informed of the stereotype threat…so to best avoid stereotype e threat he experimenter should not involve saying that there are any group diff expected
learned helplessness
belief that one has little control over situations
mastery orientation
belief that achievements are based on ones own efforts rather than factors beyond ones control
