Chapter 8: Memory Flashcards
memory
the faculty for recalling past events and past learning
learning involves which three basic activities?
encoding, storage, retrieval
encoding
involving the recording of information in our brain
storage
involving retention of information for later use
retrieval
recovery of memories when we need them later
information-processing model
view of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage, and retrieval
what are the three memory stores in the information-processing model?
sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory
visual sensory information is also known as:
iconic memory
short term memory is often synonymous with:
working memory-consists of the things we are consiously thinking of
what are two memory stores in short-term memory?
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
attentional control is also known as:
working memory (experimental psychologists) and executive function (neurophysiologists)
the commonality of function in working memory and executive function led to the belief that both are controlled by:
a component for executive attention
parallel distributed processing (PDP) or connectionist model
theory of memory suggesting that information is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
what does all forms of encoding require?
attention
automatic processing
encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort (info about time, space, frequency)
effortful processing
encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort
sensory memory
memory involving detailed brief sensory image or sound retained for a period of time
working memory
a short-term memory store that can hold five to nine items at once
rehearsal
conscious repetition of information in an attempt to make sure the information is encoded
long-term memory
the memory system in which we hold all of the information we have previously gathered available for retrieval and use in a new situation or task
spaced practice effect
facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time
phonological code
repetition of sounds
visual code
holding an image in mind
phonological codes are used for:
verbal info (in working memory)
visual codes are used for:
non-verbal info (in working memory)
eidetic memories
photographic memories
non-verbal info is encoded into long-term memory through use of:
phonological and visual cues
verbal info is encoded into long-term memory through use of:
semantic codes
semantic codes
cognitive representation of information or an event based on the meaning of the information
mnemonic devices
techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of information, as a way of making them more memorable
we “organize” memories when we:
add or elaborate the meaning of info and events
schemas
knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases
what does memory storage refer to?
retention of information (whether brief or long) in working memory or long-term memory stores
storage in working memory can enter from:
- sensory info (briefly stored before sent to working memory)
- retrieved from long term memory for use in a current situation or task
working memory can also be referred to as a:
temporary scratchpad that briefly retains information while we think and solve larger problems
working memory is limited in:
duration and capacity
how many items can working memory store?
only 5-9 items stored at a given moment
memory span
maximum number of items that can be recalled in correct order
chunking
grouping bits of information together to enhance ability to hold that information in working memory
ability to chunk comes from:
long-term memory (stored knowledge guides in chunking)
some information from long-term memory cannot be:
retrieved
long-term memory relies on:
attention and capacity of moving info from working memory to long-term memory
different types of memory are stored….
in different brain regions
explicit memories
memory that a person can consciously bring to one’s mind, such as one’s date of birth
which areas of the brain are associated with explicit memories?
hippocampus and neocortex
what are two subcomponents of explicit memory?
semantic memories and episodic memories
semantic memories
a person’s memory of general knowledge of the world
episodic memories
a person’s memory of personal events or episodes from his or her life
implicit memories
knowledge that we have stored in memory that we are not typically aware of or able to recall at will
which brain structures are associated with implicit memories?
striatum
what are the subcomponents of implicit memories?
procedural memory (motor skills and habits), classically conditioned memory, priming (earlier exposure facilitates retrieval)
long term memory forms a network of….
associations
long-term memory supports which models?
PDP/connectionist model and Levels of processing model
Levels of processing model:
process info to shallow or deeper depths
what are two basic retrieval effects due to serial position effects?
primacy effect (remembers initial items) and recency effect (remembers the last few)
serial position effect influences…
how likely a word or piece of info will be remembered
when memories are retrieved, they become available to the:
working memory system
retrieval cues
words, sights, or other stimuli that reminds us of the information we need to retrieve from our memory
priming
activation of one piece of information, which in turn leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory
recognition tasks
memory tasks in which people are asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before
recall tasks
memory tasks in which people are asked to produce information using no or few retrieval cues
the fact that people tend to perform better on recognition tasks than recall tasks is because:
the more retrieval cues available, the better the retrieval of the memory
context
the original location where you first learned a concept or idea is rich with retrieval cues that will make it more likely you will be able to recall that information later if you are in the same location or context
encoding specificity principle
a theoretical framework that asserts that memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding
state-dependent memory
memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind (consciousness) in which you encoded the memory in the first place
why are emotional events better remembered?
leads to increased rehearsal, elaboration, and organization of a particular event, can activate the amygdala during encoding, can activate a special memory mechanism if emotion is especially intense
flashbulb memories
detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event (uses a special memory mechanism)
