Chapter 2: Psychology as a Science Flashcards
what is science built on?
a foundation of core beliefs about the world
what are the two core principles of science (as well as psychology)?
- the universe operates according to certain natural laws
2. such laws are discoverable and testable
when observing and testing, psychology relies on:
the scientific method (which relies on processes of logical reasoning derived from philosophy)
deductive reasoning
reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations
deductive reasoning was questioned by:
Sir Francis Bacon
con’s listed by Sir Francis Bacon regarding deductive reasoning include:
susceptible to biases, can affect one’s ability to make objective predictions
biases
distorted beliefs based on a person’s subjective sense of reality
inductive reasoning
reasoning process proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths (use controlled direct observations to generate broad conclusions) - associate with Sir Francis Bacon
Empirical
able to be tested in objective ways
theories
ideas about laws that govern phenomena
describe the process of inductive reasoning:
empirical observation, cumulative observations lead to development of: theories
con to inductive reasoning:
too many factors governing human behaviour to observe
describe the process of the scientific method (the scientific approach)
make observations
develop hypotheses
test hypotheses
build a theory (theory established after multiple successful results)
the hypothesis becomes a theory and a theory can become framework to….
generate additional hypothesis
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
process of modern science where scientists begin with an educated guess, perhaps based on previous research, about how the world works, and then set about designing small controlled observations to support or invalidate that hypothesis
hypothetico-deductive reasoning begins with:
a deductive process - identifying a hypothesis
hypotheses
a general statement about the way variable relate that is objectively falsifiable (they can be disproved)
the purpose of hypotheses is to:
test the soundness of theories
if proven false, theories can be:
rejected/modified and new hypotheses generated
describe the general outline of deductive reasoning:
theory—-> predictions—–>observation/experiment
describe the general outline of inductive reasoning:
observation/experiment—–>predictions——>theory
describe the general outline of hypothetico-deductive reasoning:
hypothesis—->observation/experiment——>hypothesis supported or not supported (theory built if largely supported after multiple trials)
eugenics
a social movement that advocated improvement of the human race by encouraging reproduction by people with desirable genetic traits and discouraging (sometimes through forced sterilization) the reproduction of people with undesirable traits
the idea behind psychological research is to:
ISOLATE the relative contribution of some factors and to think about how these factors COME TOGETHER across different situations to influence human behaviour
science and psychology cannot answer:
fundamental and subjective questions about human nature
pseudopsychology/”pop psychology”
is not based on the scientific method, yet it takes on the appearance of science
basic factors that affect behaviour can be:
temporary or permanent fixtures in a person’s life
much of what is studied in psychology does not have:
a clear and observable physical reality
variable
condition, event, or situation that is studied in an experiment
independent variable
condition or event that is thought to be a factor in changing another condition or event
dependent variable
condition or event that you expect to change as a result of variations in the independent variable
operationalize
to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it
sample
the group of people studied in an experiment, used to stand in for an entire group of people
random selection
identifying a sample in such a way that everyone in the population of interest will have an equal chance of being involved in the study
random selection eliminates:
sampling biases
sampling bias
selecting a group of people that is likely to confirm your biases
descriptive research methods
studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a causal relationship
descriptive research methods allow researchers to pursue the goal of:
description to determine the existence and sometimes the strength of a relationship between variables of interest
what allows researchers to explain the CAUSES of behaviour?
experiments
case study
study focusing on a single person; can be affected by researchers bias and cannot generalize to situations
naturalistic observation
a study in which researchers directly observe people in a study behaving as they normally do; can be more reflective of actual human behaviour but can be subject to researcher bias
Hawthorne Effect
people who are being observed in studies or at their workplace improve or change some of their behaviour simply because they are being watched or studied, not in response to an experimental manipulation-can be a con to naturalistic observation
survey
study in which researchers give participants a questionnaire or interview them-susceptible to participant bias
participant bias
answers not completely truthful, based on social acceptability
experiment
controlled observation in which researchers manipulate the presence or amount of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable
experimental group
exposed to the independent variable
control group
not exposed to the independent variable
double-blind procedure
neither the participant or researcher knows what treatment participant is receiving
effect size
describes the strength of the relationship between two variables
what do psychologists use to describe and measure relationships between variables?
statistics
correlation
predictable relationship between two or more variables
correlation coefficient
statistic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables (can range from -1.00 to +1.00)
positive correlation (positive coefficient)
relationship in which, on average, scores on two variables increase together
negative correlation (negative coefficient)
relationship in which, on average, scores on one variable increase as scores on another variable decrease
the number of the correlation coefficient tells you:
the size or strength of the relationship between variables (0=no relationship; the farther from zero, the stronger the relationship)
perfect correlation
one in which two variables are exactly related, such that low, medium, and high scores on both variables are exactly related
at what coefficient is it recognized that two variables have some kind of predictable relationship?
0.3 or a larger value
causality
whether or not a change in one variable actually causes the change in the other
experimental analyses
examines differences between groups and determines causes of differences; associated with experiments
what are the two types of experimental analyses?
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
descriptive statistics
describe or summarize the data gathered from study
inferential statistics
tell researchers what they can infer, or conclude from the results
mean
arithmetic average of a set of scores
standard deviation
statistical index of how much scores vary within a group
replication
repeated testing of a hypothesis to ensure the results you achieve in one experiment are not due to chance
after multiple samples and conditions, if the hypotheses is continually approved then….
it becomes a theory and enables theory to become law
research ethics board (REB)
research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study
informed consent
requirement that researchers give as much information as possible about the purpose, procedure, risks, and benefits of the study so that a participant can make an informed decision about whether or not to participate
debriefing
supplying full info to participants at the end of their participation in a research study
REB’s (research ethics boards) require the following steps to ensure protection:
- Obtain informed consent
- Protect participants from harm and discomfort
- Protect confidentiality
- Make participation voluntary
- Do not use deception or incomplete disclosure
- Provide complete debriefing
