Chapter 2: Psychology as a Science

Question 1

what is science built on?

Answer 1

a foundation of core beliefs about the world

Question 2

what are the two core principles of science (as well as psychology)?

Answer 2

1. the universe operates according to certain natural laws

2. such laws are discoverable and testable

Question 3

when observing and testing, psychology relies on:

Answer 3

the scientific method (which relies on processes of logical reasoning derived from philosophy)

Question 4

deductive reasoning

Answer 4

reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations

Question 5

deductive reasoning was questioned by:

Answer 5

Sir Francis Bacon

Question 6

con’s listed by Sir Francis Bacon regarding deductive reasoning include:

Answer 6

susceptible to biases, can affect one’s ability to make objective predictions

Question 7

biases

Answer 7

distorted beliefs based on a person’s subjective sense of reality

Question 8

inductive reasoning

Answer 8

reasoning process proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths (use controlled direct observations to generate broad conclusions) - associate with Sir Francis Bacon

Question 9

Empirical

Answer 9

able to be tested in objective ways

Question 10

theories

Answer 10

ideas about laws that govern phenomena

Question 11

describe the process of inductive reasoning:

Answer 11

empirical observation, cumulative observations lead to development of: theories

Question 12

con to inductive reasoning:

Answer 12

too many factors governing human behaviour to observe

Question 13

describe the process of the scientific method (the scientific approach)

Answer 13

make observations
develop hypotheses
test hypotheses
build a theory (theory established after multiple successful results)

Question 14

the hypothesis becomes a theory and a theory can become framework to….

Answer 14

generate additional hypothesis

Question 15

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Answer 15

process of modern science where scientists begin with an educated guess, perhaps based on previous research, about how the world works, and then set about designing small controlled observations to support or invalidate that hypothesis

Question 16

hypothetico-deductive reasoning begins with:

Answer 16

a deductive process - identifying a hypothesis

Question 17

hypotheses

Answer 17

a general statement about the way variable relate that is objectively falsifiable (they can be disproved)

Question 18

the purpose of hypotheses is to:

Answer 18

test the soundness of theories

Question 19

if proven false, theories can be:

Answer 19

rejected/modified and new hypotheses generated

Question 20

describe the general outline of deductive reasoning:

Answer 20

theory—-> predictions—–>observation/experiment

Question 21

describe the general outline of inductive reasoning:

Answer 21

observation/experiment—–>predictions——>theory

Question 22

describe the general outline of hypothetico-deductive reasoning:

Answer 22

hypothesis—->observation/experiment——>hypothesis supported or not supported (theory built if largely supported after multiple trials)

Question 23

eugenics

Answer 23

a social movement that advocated improvement of the human race by encouraging reproduction by people with desirable genetic traits and discouraging (sometimes through forced sterilization) the reproduction of people with undesirable traits

Question 24

the idea behind psychological research is to:

Answer 24

ISOLATE the relative contribution of some factors and to think about how these factors COME TOGETHER across different situations to influence human behaviour

Question 25

science and psychology cannot answer:

Answer 25

fundamental and subjective questions about human nature

Question 26

pseudopsychology/"pop psychology"

Answer 26

is not based on the scientific method, yet it takes on the appearance of science

Question 27

basic factors that affect behaviour can be:

Answer 27

temporary or permanent fixtures in a person's life

Question 28

much of what is studied in psychology does not have:

Answer 28

a clear and observable physical reality

Question 29

variable

Answer 29

condition, event, or situation that is studied in an experiment

Question 30

independent variable

Answer 30

condition or event that is thought to be a factor in changing another condition or event

Question 31

dependent variable

Answer 31

condition or event that you expect to change as a result of variations in the independent variable

Question 32

operationalize

Answer 32

to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it

Question 33

sample

Answer 33

the group of people studied in an experiment, used to stand in for an entire group of people

Question 34

random selection

Answer 34

identifying a sample in such a way that everyone in the population of interest will have an equal chance of being involved in the study

Question 35

random selection eliminates:

Answer 35

sampling biases

Question 36

sampling bias

Answer 36

selecting a group of people that is likely to confirm your biases

Question 37

descriptive research methods

Answer 37

studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a causal relationship

Question 38

descriptive research methods allow researchers to pursue the goal of:

Answer 38

description to determine the existence and sometimes the strength of a relationship between variables of interest

Question 39

what allows researchers to explain the CAUSES of behaviour?

Answer 39

experiments

Question 40

case study

Answer 40

study focusing on a single person; can be affected by researchers bias and cannot generalize to situations

Question 41

naturalistic observation

Answer 41

a study in which researchers directly observe people in a study behaving as they normally do; can be more reflective of actual human behaviour but can be subject to researcher bias

Question 42

Hawthorne Effect

Answer 42

people who are being observed in studies or at their workplace improve or change some of their behaviour simply because they are being watched or studied, not in response to an experimental manipulation-can be a con to naturalistic observation

Question 43

survey

Answer 43

study in which researchers give participants a questionnaire or interview them-susceptible to participant bias

Question 44

participant bias

Answer 44

answers not completely truthful, based on social acceptability

Question 45

experiment

Answer 45

controlled observation in which researchers manipulate the presence or amount of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable

Question 46

experimental group

Answer 46

exposed to the independent variable

Question 47

control group

Answer 47

not exposed to the independent variable

Question 48

double-blind procedure

Answer 48

neither the participant or researcher knows what treatment participant is receiving

Question 49

effect size

Answer 49

describes the strength of the relationship between two variables

Question 50

what do psychologists use to describe and measure relationships between variables?

Answer 50

statistics

Question 51

correlation

Answer 51

predictable relationship between two or more variables

Question 52

correlation coefficient

Answer 52

statistic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables (can range from -1.00 to +1.00)

Question 53

positive correlation (positive coefficient)

Answer 53

relationship in which, on average, scores on two variables increase together

Question 54

negative correlation (negative coefficient)

Answer 54

relationship in which, on average, scores on one variable increase as scores on another variable decrease

Question 55

the number of the correlation coefficient tells you:

Answer 55

the size or strength of the relationship between variables (0=no relationship; the farther from zero, the stronger the relationship)

Question 56

perfect correlation

Answer 56

one in which two variables are exactly related, such that low, medium, and high scores on both variables are exactly related

Question 57

at what coefficient is it recognized that two variables have some kind of predictable relationship?

Answer 57

0.3 or a larger value

Question 58

causality

Answer 58

whether or not a change in one variable actually causes the change in the other

Question 59

experimental analyses

Answer 59

examines differences between groups and determines causes of differences; associated with experiments

Question 60

what are the two types of experimental analyses?

Answer 60

descriptive statistics and inferential statistics

Question 61

descriptive statistics

Answer 61

describe or summarize the data gathered from study

Question 62

inferential statistics

Answer 62

tell researchers what they can infer, or conclude from the results

Question 63

mean

Answer 63

arithmetic average of a set of scores

Question 64

standard deviation

Answer 64

statistical index of how much scores vary within a group

Question 65

replication

Answer 65

repeated testing of a hypothesis to ensure the results you achieve in one experiment are not due to chance

Question 66

after multiple samples and conditions, if the hypotheses is continually approved then....

Answer 66

it becomes a theory and enables theory to become law

Question 67

research ethics board (REB)

Answer 67

research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study

Question 68

informed consent

Answer 68

requirement that researchers give as much information as possible about the purpose, procedure, risks, and benefits of the study so that a participant can make an informed decision about whether or not to participate

Question 69

debriefing

Answer 69

supplying full info to participants at the end of their participation in a research study

Question 70

REB's (research ethics boards) require the following steps to ensure protection:

Answer 70

- Obtain informed consent - Protect participants from harm and discomfort - Protect confidentiality - Make participation voluntary - Do not use deception or incomplete disclosure - Provide complete debriefing