Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today Flashcards
psychology
the study of mental processes and behaviours
mental processes
activities of our brain when engaged in thinking, observing the environment, and using language
behaviour
observable activities of an organism, often in response to environmental cues
What are the goals of psychologists?
Describe, Explain, Predict, Control behaviour and mental processes
What are the levels of analysis in psychology?
Brain (the biological activity associated with mental processes and behaviour), the level of the Person (the content of the mental processes) and the level of the Group (social influences on behaviour)
culture
a set of shared beliefs and practices that are transmitted across generations
philosophy
the study of knowledge, reality, and the nature and meaning of life
describe the findings/theories of Hippocrates
believed in HUMORISM: disease was an excess/lack of bodily fluids/humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) which also determined personality and response to environmental events.
identified brain as centre of mental life
describe the findings/theories of Socrates
“essence” of human nature-searched for elements that various concepts had in common (ex. concept of beauty)
describe the findings/theories of Plato (student of Socrates)
certain ideas/concepts were pure and the ultimate reality. could use REASONING to uncover core ideas imbedded in the human soul
describe the findings/theories of Aristotle (student of Plato)
promoted empirical investigations of the natural world (observed inward and environment)
formed ideas about how living things are hierarchically organized
Francis Bacon - English philosopher and scientist
creator of EMPIRICISM (all knowledge originates in experience)-established and popularized the scientific method
Rene Descartes
viewed all truths as linked and believed that the meaning of the natural world could be understood through science and mathematics
John Locke
believed one learned from experience-born with a tabula rasa/”blank slate” —-> no innate ideas, all knowledge influenced by experience
Johannes Muller
pioneered psychophysics (study between physical stimuli and psychological effect)
Herman von Helmholtz
measured speed of nerve impulse, determined that nerve impulses occur over time rather than instantaneously. thought/movement are linked but not the same thing.
Gustav Fechner
founder of experimental psychology. provided evidence in the relationship between physical and mental events=psychology could become a quantified science.
Wilhelm Wundt
believed that study of mind and behaviour ought to be conducted using the experimental methods of other sciences-opened first lab dedicated to psychology in Leipzig; associate with CONSCIOUSNESS and VOLUNTARISM
consciousness
personal awareness of ongoing mental processes, behaviours and environmental events. can be broken down to “will”-organized mind into complex higher levels
voluntarism
a theory in which ‘will’ is regarded as the ultimate agency in human behaviour; belief that much of behaviour is motivated and that attention is focused for an explicit purpose. Developed to distinguish between automatic and voluntary/willful actions and perceptions in human behaviour.
Edward Titchener
attempted to identify the laws governing relationships between elements of consciousness and to ascertain how these elements interacted with the mind and body; associate with STRUCTURALISM and INTROSPECTION.
structuralism
a philosophical approach that studies the structure of conscious experience
introspection
a method of psychological study involving careful evaluation of mental processes and how simple thoughts expand into complex ideas-developed by Wundt and employed by Titchener/structuralists*
William James
purpose and function of mental processes-HOW consciousness functions (helps in adapting-Darwin) ; associate with FUNCTIONALISM
functionalism
a philosophical approach that considers how mental processes function to adapt to changing environments; based on belief that scientists should examine the function/purpose of consciousness
Gestalt psychology
the field of psychology arguing that we have inborn tendencies to structure what we see in particular ways and to structure our perceptions into broad perceptual units -German for “whole” or “form”
unconscious
hypothesized repository of feelings, thoughts, and sensations outside human awareness, thought in some theories to have a strong bearing on human behaviour; associate with SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud
thoughts and feelings exist beyond realm of awareness, in the unconscious;interested in cases of hysteria; associate with UNCONSCIOUS and PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
psychoanalytic theory
psychological theory that human mental processes are influenced by the competition between unconscious forces to come into awareness (criticized for lack of scientific evidence and research support)
behaviourism
a branch of psychological thought arguing that psychology should study only directly observable behaviours rather than abstract mental processes
stimuli
elements of the environment that trigger changes in our internal or external state
response
the way we react to stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
discovered conditioning linked various animal behaviours to events in animals’ environment-the consequences resulting from a particular behaviour serves to either increase/decrease the likelihood that an organism will perform that same behaviour again in the future; associate with BEHAVIOURISM
reinforcement
a learning process that increases the likelihood a given response will be repeated
Positive reinforcement
a behaviour is POSITIVELY reinforced when it brings about a desired outcome
Negative reinforcement
a behaviour is NEGATIVELY reinforced when it helps an organism avoid an undesired outcome
punishment
an experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour
pure behaviourism
behaviourism with no attention to mental processes
cognitive behaviourism
combined conditioning and cognition to better explain behaviour
humanistic psychology
theory of psychology that sought to give greater prominence to special and unique features of human functioning; associate with SELF-ACTUALIZATION and emphasis on INDIVIDUAL POTENTIAL FOR GROWTH
client-centred therapy
an approach to therapy founded by Carl Rogers, based on the notion that the client is an equal and positive gains are made by mirroring clients’ thoughts and feelings in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard
cognitive psychology
the field of psychology studying mental processes as forms of information processing, or the ways in which information is stored and operated in our minds
information processing
the means by which information is stored and operates internally
cultural psychology
the study of how cultural practices shape psychological and behavioural tendencies and influence human behaviour
cross-cultural psychology
the study of what is generally or universally true about human beings regardless of culture
neuroscience
the study of psychological functions by looking at biological foundations of those functions
what were the finding’s of Donald Hebb?
concept of cell assembly to describe the network of neurons that develop strengthened internal synaptic connections with repeated stimulations
behavioural genetics
a subfield on psychology looking at the influence of genes on human behaviour
sociobiologists
theorists who believe humans have a genetically innate concept of how social behaviour should be organized
epigenetics
the study of how environmental influences affect gene expression and change behaviour
evolutionary psychology
a field of study believing that the body and brain are products of evolution and that genetic inheritance plays an important role in shaping the complete range of thoughts and behaviours
cultural universality
behaviours and practices that occur across all countries
what is the major emphasis of psychoanalytic theory?
interactions between the conscious and unconscious mind govern virtually all behaviour; childhood experiences set the stage for later psychological functioning
what is the major emphasis of behaviourist theory?
only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically. perspective focuses on stimulus-response relationships and the consequences of behaviours
what is the major emphasis of humanist perspective?
people can be helped to realize their full potential, which will inevitably lead to their positive psychological growth
what is the major emphasis of cognitive perspective?
mental processes are studied using an information processing model (inputs/outputs)
what is the major emphasis of neuroscience/psychobiological?
psychobiological functions are explained primarily in terms of their biological foundations
what is the major emphasis of evolutionary perspectives?
behaviour and mental processes are explained in terms of evolution, inheritance, and adaption
what are three branches of psychology?
academic psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, applied psychology
academic psychology
a branch of psychology focusing on research and instruction in the various areas or fields of study in psychology
applied psychology
the branch of psychology applying psychological principles to practical problems in other fields such as education, marketing or industry
clinical and counselling psychology
the study of abnormal psychological behaviour and intentions designed to change behaviour
psychotherapy
involves helping people modify thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that are causing them distress or inhibiting their functions
what are the shared values in psychology?
Psychology is: theory-driven, empirical, multi-level, contextual
collectivist
a culture whose members focus more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires
individualist
a culture that places the wants or desires of the person over the needs of the group
cognitive neuroscience
the study of mental processes and how they relate to the biological functions of the brain
social neuroscience
the study of social functioning and how it is tied to brain activity
positive psychology
studies human strengths, fulfillment, and creativity
positive psychotherapy
focuses on increasing the positive emotions and sense of engagement and meaning experienced by clients
