Chapter 3: Neuroscience Part 2 Flashcards
afferent neurons
neurons that carry sensory info from the body toward CNS
efferent neurons
neurons that carry info out from the CNS to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons that typically have a short axon and serve as a relay between different classes of neurons; in the spinal cord, interneurons communicate with both sensory and motor neurons
somatic nervous system
all the peripheral nerves that transmit info about body sensation and movement to and from the central nervous system (VOLUNTARY ACTION)
autonomic nervous system
portion of the peripheral nervous system that comprises the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems (INVOLUNTARY-operates without help from CNS)
sympathetic nervous system
the part of the autonomic nervous system that is activated under conditions of stress “fight-or-flight”
parasympathetic nervous system
the part of the autonomic nervous system that is active during restful times “rest-and-digest”
spinal cord
portion of the central nervous system that extends down from the base of the brain and mediates sensory and motor information
What comprises simple reflexes?
sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron
Gyri/sulci
Convolutions and folds in the brain, allows greater accommodation of brain surface area
Hindbrain
The part of the brain that is closest to the spinal cord that consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum; the reticular formation begins here and extends to the midbrain
Medulla
Part of the brain that controls basic bodily processes and regulates certain types of reflexes-responsible for breathing, heartbeat, and other vital life functions
Pons
Uppermost or anterior (front) part of the brainstem that includes the locus coeruleus- involved with respiration, movement, waking, sleeping, and dreaming
Locus coeruleus
Contains long neurons that project throughout brain and spinal cord
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter that is important for arousal and attention
Cerebellum
Part of the brain, near the base of the back of the head, important for motor coordination-coordinates fine muscle movement, balance, and some perception and cognition
Reticular formation
A complex neural network extending from the hindbrain into the midbrain that plays a central role in regulating consciousness and arousal - helps screen incoming sensory information and controls arousal
Reticular formation is the primary brain source of:
Serotonin
Midbrain
Contains the substantial nigra
The substantial nigra produces:
Dopamine
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter produced by neurons in the brain stem and involved in movement and reward systems
Forebrain
Divided into two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callousness
Contralateral
Each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
Cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of grey matter
Thalamus
An area of the brain that serves, in part, as a relay station for incoming sensory information (contains LGN and MGN)-relays sensory messages to cortex
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
Relays visual info to the visual cortex
Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)
Relays auditory info to the auditory cortex
Hypothalamus
Brain structure important for motivation and control of the endocrine system
Endocrine system
The system that controls levels of hormones throughout the body
Pituitary gland
Brain structure that plays a central role in controlling the endocrine system, produces releasing factors that control endocrine glands
Limbic system
A group of interconnected brain structures that are associated with learning, memory, basic emotions, and drive (includes the hippocampus, amygdaloid, hypothalamus, thalamus, and more)
Amygdala
Brain area involved in processing information about emotions, particularly fear
Hippocampus
Brain region important for certain types of learning and memory, formation and transient storage of episodic memories, involved in neuro genesis in adulthood
The basal ganglia
A group of nuclei-functions as a cohesive unit that plays a role in aspects of cognition and in regulating and coordinating voluntary motor control
Nucleus accumbens
A brain area important for motivation and reward
Substantial nigra
A brain region important in fluidity of movement and inhibiting movements
Cerebral cortex
The largest portion of the brain, responsible for complex behaviours including language and thought (the folded outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres)
Cerebral cortex can be divided into:
Primary sensory and/or motor areas or association cortex, it can be further grouped into four lobes
Association cortex
Areas of the cortex responsible for complex functions; including higher-order sensory processing, thinking, and planning- all cortex that is neither purely sensory nor motor
The occipital lobe
Lobe of the cortex at the back of the skull, important for processing visual information, contains the primary visual cortex
The temporal lobe
Part of the cortex important in processing sound in speech comprehension, and in recognizing complex visual stimuli, such as faces (contains the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area)
The parietal lobe
Lobe of the cortex involved in processing information related to touch and complex visual information, particularly about locations-contains the somatosensory strip
Somatosensory strip
An area of the parietal cortex that processes tactile information coming from our body parts
The frontal lobe
Lobe of the cortex involved in many functions, including movement and speech production (contains the primary motor strip and Broca’s area)
Broca’s area
A brain region located in the frontal lobe that is important for speech production (left)
Prefrontal lobe
Portion of the frontal cortex involved in higher order thinking, such as memory, moral reasoning, and planning
corpus callosum
bundle of axons that allows communication from one side of cortex to the other
hemispheres
two sides of the brain-receives info from and controls opposite sides of body
which side of the brain are language areas (ex. Wernicke’s and Broca’s area) located?
left
evolutionary psychology
field of study that examines how the process of evolution has shaped the body and brain via the interaction of our genes and the environment to produce our thoughts and behaviours
what does the theory of evolution propose?
that all life on Earth is interrelated and derives from one common ancestor
what does LUCA stand for?
last universal common ancestor
phylogeny
the development of unique species over time
when did multicellular organisms evolve?
1.8 billion years ago
when was there a sudden increase in diversity of organisms?
600-500 million years ago
what are chordates and when did the develop?
chordates have large nerves that run below the surface of their backs (450 million years ago)
what is a characteristic of vertebrates and when did they develop?
boney structure protecting the dorsal nerve roots (425 million years ago)
what is a characteristic of amphibians and when did they develop?
first creature to move on land due to emergence of lungs and legs (400 million years ago)
what is a characteristic of reptiles and when did they develop?
moved farther away from water, thick skin protected them against dehydration (300 million years ago)
what is a characteristic of mammals and when did they develop?
females keep eggs inside their bodies and nurse their young with mammary glands (180 million years ago)
all life forms are classified into kingdoms, which are:
Eucharia, Archea, Bacteria
Animalia is a kingdom with Eucharia, these organisms have the characteristic of:
nervous systems
homologous
traits that are similar between species and can be traced back to a common ancestor
analogous
traits that have evolved independently in different species
how do you determine if the traits are homologous or analogous?
analyze to determine whether the trait can be linked to a common ancestor
convergent evolution
the development of similar physical characteristics or behaviours in different species that do not share a common ancestor: occurs because of exposure to similar environmental conditions for different species - associate with ANALOGOUS
evolution by natural selection
the differential likelihood between members of a species in their ability to survive and reproduce
fitness
the ability of an individual to successfully grow to maturity and have offspring that perpetuate the existence of the species that the individual belongs to
animals of a given species that will survive and reproduce are those that can:
adapt and therefore survive best in their current environment, these traits are passed on genetically leading to changes in an animal’s physical structure and behaviour over time
what are Darwin’s explanation for the diversity of life?
- animals change over time
- similar structures underneath
- selective breeding leads to changed appearances
- not all animals that are born will survive and reproduce
modern synthesis
the integration of the knowledge of genetics with inheritance (1920’s)
how are homo sapiens different from other organisms?
larger cortex
phenotype
observable characteristic
