Chapter 8 Flashcards
Concept
Mental representation of an object, event or idea
Categories
Clusters of interrelated concepts
Rule based categorization
Categorizing objects or events according to
-rules
-features
Comparison based categorization
Prototype-Mental representation of an average category member
Exemplar-Specific (real) example best representing category
Graded membership-some concepts make better category members than others
Semantic Networks
Interconectes set of nodes(concepts)
Joined by links to form a category
Reaction time can be used to test hierarchal organization, connectedness of networks
Priming
Activation of individual concepts in LTM
Can influence which concepts/categories are referenced
Basic Level Categories
Level prototypes exist
Experience and categorization
Our experiences help us compare and categorize stimuli quickly and accurately
Can lead to bias
The brain and categorization
Temporal lobe damage: difficulty identifying objects, while still able to describe object features
Category Specific Visual Agnosia: Difficulty identifying stimuli from a specific category
> suggests specialized networks for small group of categories important for evolutionary success
Culture and categorization
Folk Biology: How the natural world is conceptualized and categorized differently across cultures
(Basic level categories differ across cultures)
Cross cultural differences in perceived relation between objects
(NA single object characteristics, Japan object in relation to environment)
Problem solving
Accomplishing a goal when solution or path to solution is not clear
Algorithms
Problem solving strategies based on series of rules
Heuristics
Problem solving strategies using prior knowledge to make educated guesses
Mental Set
Cognitive obstacle occurring when trying to solve new problem with routine incorrect solution
Functional Fixedness: identifying an object or technique to solve a problem but only thinking or most obvious function
Conjunction Fallacy
Belied that finding a specific member in 2 overlapping categories is more likely than in one larger general category
Representativeness Heuristic
Making judgements of likelihood based on how well example represents specific category
Availability Heuristic
Estimating frequency of event based on how easily examples of it come to mind
Belief Perseverance
Remaining committed to decision or belief when provided evidence against it
Confirmation Bias
Searching for (or only paying attention to) evidence that confirms belief instead of evidence that may disconfirm belief
Aphasia
Language disorder caused by damage to brain structures that support use and understanding of language
Paul broca
Broca’s area: Region of left frontal lobe that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words
Carl Wernicke
Wernicke’s area: area of brain most associated with understanding words
Language
Form of communication that involves use of spoken, written or gestural symbols combined in rule based format
Contains discrete units of differing complexity
Spoken language combines units of sound (200 sounds for humans ) into infinite number of meanings
Phonemes
Most basic units of speech sounds
Morphemes
Smallest meanings units of a language
Semantics
Study of how people understand the meaning of words
Syntax
Rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences
Most basic units
>nouns and verbs
Pragmatics
Study of non linguistic elements of language use
Emphasizes speaker’s behaviours and social situation
How something is said more important than what is said (inferences)
Flouting>disregarding language rules in obvious way
Infants-2 Months
Infants show preference for speech sounds over non speech sounds
Infants-6 Months
Infants show preference for context words (nouns and verbs)
Infants-8-10 Months
Infants begin perceiving sounds in ways consistent with native language
Infants-20 Months
Children able to use newly developed perceptual categories to quickly learn new words
Fast mapping
Ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only a single exposure
Naming Explosion
Rapid increase in vocabulary size
-fast mapping
-language related functions begin to localize in left hemisphere
-increase in axon myelination>increased speed of neuronal communication
Procedural Spoken Language
Early psychologists focused on behavioural approaches to language learning
-believe language was learned by imitating sounds and associated reinforcement
-language learning replaced with language acquisition
-regardless of language, children acquired similar language capabilities in stages
Stages
1-2: cooing
4-10: babbling(consonants)
8-16: single word
24: two word
24+: complete phrases
Bilingualism
Children-smaller vocab for each
Adults- slower at naming pictures, alphabetical word lists
Benefits- greater executive functioning, attention, greater frontal lobe connectivity
Genes, evolution and language
Genetics and evolutionary pressures led to development of brains capable of language
FOXP2 gene related to languages function
>mutations associated with difficulty turning thoughts to words
>found in other species
>role in component of language
Can Animals Use Language?
Songbirds have similar language related genes
Monkey species have connections between brain areas like Broca’s and Wernicke’s
-involved in control of facial and throat muscles
Chimpanzees
-can learn sign language (to 200)
-communicate using symbols(lexigrams) up to 350
-can recognize spoken words up to 3000
Limitations
Limited use of syntax
Don’t pass skills on
Limited productivity
-creating new words/gestures or using existing gestures to name new objects or events
