Chapter 10 Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
Study of human physical, cognitive, social and behavioural characteristics span across the lifespan
Cross-sectional design
Measures and compares samples of people at different ages at a given point in time
Less expensive and quicker
Subject to Cohort Effects->generational differences
Longitudinal Design
Follows development of same set of individuals through time
More expensive and time consuming
Subject to attrition-> dropping out
Embryonic Stage (2 weeks)
Nerve cells develop
Layer of specialized cells fold to create neural tube->brain and spinal cord
Embryonic Stage (4 weeks)
Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain divisions observable
Embryonic Stage (7 Weeks)
Spinal cord development allows movement, strengthening and coordination of limbs
Embryonic Stage (11 Weeks)
Cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brain stem all developed
Embryonic Stage (7 months)
Cerebral cortex forms folds and ridges
Myelin builds up around developing nerve cells
Embryonic Stage (9 months/birth)
Brain approx 25% size and weight of adult brain
Approx 100 billion neurons (but most connections not established yet)
Fetal Brain Development
Vulnerable to harmful environmental influences
Malnutrition in Fetal Stage causes underdeveloped prefrontal cortices and other areas related to self control ->higher prob for attention deficit disorders/impaired emotional control
Teratogens->Substances that impair developmental process
-drugs,alcohol,,environmental toxins
Senses in infancy
Taste and olfactory systems developed at birth
Newborns prefer mother’s voice/familiar stories
Approx 1/40th visual acuity of adults (30cm away)
Comparable at 6 months, and at 8 months equal
Prefer to look at stimuli resembling faces
Motor development in infancy
Babies with crawl experience have depth perception and danger understanding
Reflexes: Involuntary muscular reactions to specific types of stimulation
-rooting reflex (turning to stimuli in corner of mouth)
-moro reflex (reaching out of arms, then hugging motion; grimacing)
-grasping reflex
-stepping reflex (straighten leg to anticipate pressure on sole of foot)
Central Nervous System Development
Myelination of axon occurs rapidly through infancy + childhood
Myelination of sensorimotor systems contribute to voluntary motor control
Synaptogenesis
Forming new synaptic connections
Synaptic Pruning
Loss of weak nerve cell connections
Cognitive Development
Study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur through lifespan
Sensitive Period
When exposure to specific types of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of specific ability
-language acquisition, depth perception, balance, parent recognition, identifying with particular culture
Jean Piaget
Studied, tested and measured his own children
Interested in how children think and reason
Piaget’s 2 central processes:
Assimilation:Fitting new information into a belief system already possessed
Accommodation: Modifying belief structures based on new experiences
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Preoperational (2-7 years)
Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
Formal Operational (11-adulthood)
Sensorimotor Stage
Thoughts bases on immediate sensory and motor exploration
Object permanence: Objects exist even when not perceived
Preoperational Stage
Focused on language development, symbol use, pretend play
Understand object permanence but not abstract thinking
Scale errors
Can count and use numbers but cant manipulate this information (conservation)
Conservation: Knowledge that quantity or amount of object is not same as physical arrangement or appearance of object
Concrete Operational Stage
Logical thinking and number manipulation skills
Can problem solve and reason with logical concepts BUT logical operations must conform to previous experience and beliefs (Transitivity Property)
Formal Operational Stage
Advanced cognitive processes like abstract thinking and hypothetical thinking
Core Knowledge Hypothesis
Infants are born with abilities to understand key aspects of their environment
Habituation-dishabituation
Habituation: Decrease in responding with repeated exposure to event
Dishabituation: Increase in responding to new stimulus
Attachment
Enduring emotional bond formed between individuals
Originally thought to be just biological drives (survival)
Motivated by feelings of security and comfort (Harry Harlow’s monkeys)
Strange Situation Test
Measured human infant attachment
4 Attachment Styles
Secure Attachment
Occasionally ‘checks in’ with parent while exploring
Some distress when parent leaves, avoids stranger
Seeks comfort from parent when they return
Insecure Attachment (Anxious/ambivalent)
Exhibits ‘clingy’ behaviour rather than exploration
Very upset when parent leaves, fearful of stranger
Seeks comfort when parent returns, but also resists
Insecure (Avoidant)
Does not need parent
Unconcerned when parent leaves, unconcerned of stranger
Does not seek contact upon return
Disorganized Attachment
Instability
Views parent as source of comfort and fear
Switches between seeking comfort, resisting and freezing
Self Awareness
Ability to recognize one’s own individuality
Children start egocentrically focused
Eventually develop ‘Theory of Mind’: Aware of differences with others
Arises as children understand and interpret their own internal mental or emotional states and attribute to others
Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages (First 4)
Infancy: Trust vs mistrust
Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs Shame
Early Childhood: Initiative vs Guilt
Childhood: Industry vs Inferiority
Puberty
Begins at 11 years for girls and 13 for boys
Hypothalamus>Pituitary Gland>Release of hormones (estrogen/testosterone)>development of primary and secondary sex traits
Sex Traits
Primary: Directly related to reproduction
eg. spermarche, menarche
Secondary:Indirectly related to reproduction
Release of hormones associated with major changes in brain and emotional experiences
Adolescence
More likely for risky and impulsive behaviour
-glorification of high risk behaviour
-peer pressure
-independence from parental supervision
Cognitive control systems (prefrontal cortex) developing while reward fully developed
Presence of others can reduce frontal lobe activity
Moral Development
Preconventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Postconventional Morality
Moral reasoning doesn’t predict actual behaviour
Identity
One’s sense of the kind of person they are, what types of people they belong to, and their roles in society
Stage 5:
Adolescence: Identity vs Role Confusion
Gender Identity
Transgender
Dysphoria: Anxiety/discomfort for birth sex
Prenatal hormones may help determine sexual orientation
Social Development
Peer Groups: Common social and behavioural interests, goals, conventions
Social exclusion causes shame, worthlessness, inferiority, difficulty establishing identity
Romantic Relationships: Safety and security needs switch to physical and emotional intimacy
Emerging Adult 3 Main areas of personal growth
Relationships
New possibilities
Personal Strength
Early/Middle adulthood
Minor physical development
Menopause(50 years)
-reduction of estrogen, progesterone, hot flashes, sleep disruptions, mood changes
Testosterone and sexual motivation declines in men
Adult stages
- Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation
- Adulthood: Generativity vs Stagnation
Love and Marriage
Committed long term relationship:
-greater health, longer life, happier
40% marriages end in divorce
Gottman’s Love Lab
Observed couples interacting
Could predict divorce with 94% accuracy
4 Horsemen of Relationship Apocalypse
Criticism
Defensiveness
Contempt
Stonewalling
Parental and Marital Satisfaction
Within 2 years of having children, decline in marital satisfaction (larger for high SES and young parents)
Increases after children leave home
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Older adults select more positive and nourishing experiences
More attention to positive
Participate in activities emphasizing positive emotions and meaningful connections with others
Late Adulthood Stage:
- Aging Ego integrity vs Despair
Aging
Neurodegeneration
General reduction in grey an white matter volume in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex
Decline in Gf
More widespread activation when performing tasks (ineffective cognitive strategies)
Dementia
14% of people over 71
Mild-severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement and decision making
Alzheimer’s Disease
Caused by buildup of protein (plaques) and/or neurofibrillary tangles in brain
Erikson’s Stages
Infancy: Trust vs mistrust
Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs Shame
Early Childhood: Initiative vs Guilt
Childhood: Industry vs Inferiority
Adolescence: Identity vs Role Confusion
Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation
Adulthood: Generativity vs Stagnation
Aging: Ego integrity vs Despair
