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Chapter 7: Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the difference between Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes?

A

Pro- no membrane bound organelles, (sometimes has structures for photosynthesis.)
Euk- contains internal membrane bound organelles.

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2
Q

Which cell type is larger Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes

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3
Q

What are examples of Prokaryotes?

What do

A

Bacteria and Archaea

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4
Q

Nearly all prokaryotes contain what?

A

Cell wall, and a membrane constructed via a phospholipid bilayer.

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5
Q

What do the Cell Wall in prokaryotes do?

A
  • Protect from things

- prevents bursting or swelling as a result of osmotic pressure.

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6
Q

What kinds of environments do bacteria often find themselves in?

A

Hypotonic

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7
Q

What are the two forms in which DNA comes in Prokaryotic cells?

A
  1. ) Chromosomal- large circular molecule of DNA.

2. ) Plasmids- smaller portions of DNA, that hold important genes.

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8
Q

What is conjugation?

A

Plasmids exchange genes with other similar forms of bacteria.

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9
Q

What and Where is the nucleoid region of a bacteria molecule found?

A
  • The region of cytoplasm within a bacterial cell where the circular chromosome is found.
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10
Q

What is the idea of super-coiling?

A
  • If u take a circular molecule ( like the DNA found in bacteria) and it is twisted, than that will automatically cause that molecule to wrap up.
  • So it continues to coil and allows it to occupy a relatively small volume.
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11
Q

What cells contain Ribosomes?

A

All cells.

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12
Q

What is the function of RNA?

A

To make new proteins.

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13
Q

What are the sub-units of RNA?

A

Large-
Small-
Composed of lots of individuals pieces

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14
Q

How do the ribosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ?

A

the specific components that there ribosomes are constructed of. (proteins such)

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15
Q

Hoe can Rna be used diagnostically?

A

You can look and see what types of rRna’s make up the cells ribosomes and determine if it is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

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16
Q

What are the different classes of appendages seen on prokaryotes?

A

Flagellum- really long and mobile (motile) appendages, that are large, complex, and multicellular subunit proteins that span the bilayer and cell wall. ( like a boat prop) (movement)

Fimbriae- long spiky looking structures that serve to anchor the prokaryote ( cell to cell or cell to environment anchoring).

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17
Q

Contrast: Size?

A

Euk- approx 10-100 mico meters

Pro- 1 mico meters

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18
Q

Contrast: Membrane-bound nucleus?

A

Pro- no

Euk- yes

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19
Q

Contrast: other internal organelles?

A

Pro- rarely

Euk- many

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20
Q

Contrast: Chromosomes?

A

Pro- single circular loop of DNA with few complexed proteins.
Euk- multiple linear chromosomes with lots of complexed proteins

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21
Q

Contrast: Ribosomes?

A

Pro- smaller, less complex

Euk- larger, more complexed

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22
Q

what are the differences between cytosol and cytoplasm?

A

Cytosol- fluid, water, watery component of which stuff is dissolved within the cell
Cytoplasm- anything inside the cell membrane

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23
Q

what is an organelle?

A

small membrane bound structure within a cell that contains the proteins necessary for a very particular structure.

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24
Q

Most of the organelles with plant and animal cells are the same (T/F)?
- If T/F explain the similarities and or differences?
(as described by Greedy Sneed douchebag Reedy)

A
  • T

- Plant cells got: cell wall, chloroplast, and a vacuoles!!!!

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25
Q

What is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?

A

The nucleus

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26
Q

T/F the nucleus is contained within a single membrane?

A

False, double membrane structure.

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27
Q

What is the only organelle we can see with a standard light microscope?

A

Nucleus

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28
Q

What are the nuclear pours?

A

The point where the double membrane meets creating passage ways.

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29
Q

What is found within the nucleus?

A

Chromosomes!!! I have 35 myself !!!

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30
Q

How do the chromosomes of Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes differ?

A

Euk- linear stranded, almost always more than one.

Pro- circular

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31
Q

What are the areas of higher density within the nucleus known for and as?

A
  • Nucleolus, lots of ribosomal RNA is produced.

- areas of densely packed chromosomes.

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32
Q

What are the mitochondrion?

A
  • football shaped structures located floating throughout the cell.
  • double membraned structure
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33
Q

What are Cristae and what membrane bound organelle do they belong to?

A
  • Larger inner folds of the mitochondria, thus increasing its surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane
  • literally a chick with giant meat flaps, like Hella surface area and stank…
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34
Q

What is the role of the mitochondria and where are it’s important internal structures located at?

A
  • produce ATP

- structures are located in the cristae

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35
Q

What is the mitochondrial matrix?

A
  • The fluid filled spaces in between the cristae.
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36
Q

T/F mitochondria have DNA within them?

A

Correct Brotha

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37
Q

In animal cells what cellular structures house DNA?

In plant cells what cellular structures house DNA?

A
  1. ) Mitochondria and nucleus.

2. ) chloroplast, nucleus, and algae have mitochondria.

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38
Q

Peroxisomes?

A

small spherical organelles found right at the cell periphery.

  • what we have classified as peroxisomes is likely a multiple sub types of organelles that look a like.
  • Where oxidation reactions occur
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39
Q

What is universal peroxisome function?

A

the peroxisomes is the site where hydrogen peroxide is contained and then degraded in a controlled fashion called catalase.
- which produces free radicals.

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40
Q

Where do we find Ribosomes (eukaryotic cells)?

A
  • floating in the cytosol
  • anchored on the surface of the Rough endo-plasmic reticulum.
  • Nucleus synthesis ribosomes
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41
Q

What is the function of the rough ER?

A
  • Protein synthesis.
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42
Q

What is the Smooth ER?

A

Primarily new lipid metabolism

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43
Q

BOBBY FUCKING SHMUURRDDAAA says that in some cells the smooth er can …?

A

detoxify against certain cell type (hydrophobic)

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44
Q

In a liver cell you’d likely find a high concentration of what?

A

BoBBy Shmurdra…jk

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

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45
Q

What is the golgi apparatus?

A
  • network of membranes that lay very close to the rough er

- receives vesicles containing proteins.

46
Q

Where are the proteins received on the Golgi apparatus?

A
  • “cis” face of the Golgi apparatus or point facing the rough er.
47
Q

What is the trans phase of the Golgi?

A
  • The trans phase of the Golgi is the last fold of the golgi.
  • where the OG vesicle containing protein is repacked into in a new vesicle right outside the trans.
48
Q

What are lysosomes?

A
  • Spherical cells found near the cell membrane.
  • only found in animal cells.
  • Basically the recycling cell. ( take in large cellular macro-molecules and break them down into smaller pieces and them export those pieces into the cytosol to be reused.)
49
Q

What allows lysosomes to act as recycling cells?

A

They are packed full of a category of enzymes called acid hydrolases.

50
Q

What are hydrolases?

A

An enzyme that carries our hydrolysis reactions. ( all of the biological macro molecules are broken down this way)

51
Q

What are acid hydrolases?

A

hydrolases that only fold and work properly in an acidic environment.

52
Q

What is the Ph of the lysosomes?

A

4-5, so it in fact uses acid hydrolases.

53
Q

What is important about the acidic environment of the lysosome?

A
  1. ) hydrolysis reactions are more efficient in an acidic environment.
  2. ) acts a fail safe, if the hydrolases were let loose in the cytosol they could do lots of cellular damage
54
Q

How is the acidic environment within a lysosome with held?

A
  • Proton pumps
55
Q

How do materials get delivered to the lysosome?

A
  1. ) Receptor-Mediated endocytosis: When enough molecules bind to the membrane it is then pinched inward and is brought into the cell in a new vesicle (endocytic vesicle). Next it is acidified until it reaches the stage of a lysosome.
    - how cells bring in cholesterol.
  2. ) Phagocytosis: cell encounters a larger structure in its extra-cellular-fluid. It then enters the cell and is pinched off thus creating a phagosome. The phagosome then gets delivered into a lysosome to be degraded.
    - immune system is good at this.
  3. ) Autophagy: using internal materials and delivering them to a lysosome.
    - This can happen on a large scale or a small scale.
    - The cell can build a new membrane around the damaged cell, and thus creates an Autophagosome.
    - Then the autophagosome gets delivered to a lysosome.
56
Q

Which types of cells rely more heavily on autophagy than any other cell?

A

Cancer cells.

57
Q

Are lysosomes present in plants?

A
  • No they are not.
58
Q

What is the plants equivalent of a lysosome and what is that biddie’s functions?

A
  • Vacuoles, they can be very large and look like large bags of fluid.
    1. ) Storage: pigments, waste, salts, minerals, nutrients, pigments, and toxins
    2. ) Recycling: similar to lysosomes
    3. ) Structural: maintain the plant’s turgor pressure
59
Q

What is the primary function of chloroplast?

A
  • carry out photosynthesis.
60
Q

What are the internal structures of chloroplasts.

A
  • double membrane structure.
  • Large stacks of membranes = thylakoids
  • fluid filled area outside the thylakoids= stroma
  • a place were thylakoids are stacked = granum
61
Q

How are chloroplast and mitochondria similar?

A
  • major energy producers for the cell

- contain their own genome

62
Q

What is the importance behind the plant cell wall?

A
  1. ) plants lack internal structural mechanisms like bone, so the rely on the cell wall for rigidity and shape.
  2. ) Also allows two adjacent plant cells to stick together.
63
Q

Cellular structure reflects its?

A
  • Function, EX: an animals pancreatic cell has a large rough er so it can generate more proteins, as that is the major responsibility of that organ.
64
Q

What are is steps involved for an organellar protein to reach its organelle?

A
  1. ) - “Molecular address” on that proteins, that is specific to the location of the organelle.
  2. ) - “Receptor” for the proteins that have a particular molecular address.
  3. ) system (pour) in the organelle membrane that allows that protein to get across.
65
Q

What is a molecular address?

A

Small stretch of amino acids folded into a shape.

- Unique structural form on a protein, that specifically shows what organelle or protein it belongs to.

66
Q

What is a nuclear protein?

A

A protein that functions within the nucleus.

67
Q

Where are nuclear proteins made?

A

Ribosomes that are floating in the cytosol

68
Q

What is the system that allows for nuclear proteins to enter the nucleus?

A

Nuclear pours- large protein complexes that span the inner and outer membrane.

69
Q

T/F are nuclear pours highly regulated?

A

True they are highly regulated, and only open and close in response to certain stimuli

70
Q

How do we determine the molecular address of a protein?

A

Experiment:
Hypothesis: nuclear plasmin must have some kind of a unique address on it, and it must identify it as some kind of a nuclear protein.
Goal: find the unique aspect of it that makes it a nuclear protein.

71
Q

How do we determine the molecular address of a protein?

A

Experiment:
Hypothesis: nuclear plasmin must have some kind of a unique address on it, and it must identify it as some kind of a nuclear protein.
Goal: find the unique aspect of it that makes it a nuclear protein.
Approach: Broke the protein up into two parts: ( the tail and the core),
- used dye and placed them in sperate containers, each was injected into the cytoplasm of cells.
Theory: one of the two fragments that contains the molecular address will enter and the other will not.
Conclusion: the tail fragment readily entered the nucleus while the core didn’t.
Further steps: break the tail fragment into smaller fragments, and do this until you cannot get any smaller.

72
Q

What type of protein contains an NLS?

A

Nuclear protein

73
Q

What is the NLS (nuclear localization signal)?

What step does it represent in getting nuclear proteins into the cell?

A

Stretch of roughly 16-17 amino acids, in a mostly basic amino acid.
-This folds up into a really unique shape, that serves as a flag as to it being a nuclear protein.
—————————————–
Step 1.

74
Q

What is importin?

What step does it represent in getting nuclear proteins into the cell?

A
  • it is a protein in the cytoplasm, that is an intracellular receptor for proteins with an NLS.
  • then importin delivers the protein with the NLS that binded to it… to the nuclear pour complex.

step 2.

75
Q

What is the nuclear pour complex?

What step does it represent in getting nuclear proteins into the cell?

A
  • ## are way of getting cargo across the nuclear membrane and into the nucleus.
76
Q

Once you get your nuclear protein into the nucleus, how do we get the importin back out.

A

Importin binds to Ran-GTP.

77
Q

What are RAN proteins?

A

Ran is an example of G protein.

78
Q

What is a G protein?

A
  • Bind to either GTP or GDP.

- Shape of protein is determined by what guanine group they are bonded to

79
Q

How does RAN-GTP assist in moving importin out of the nucleus?

A
  • When importin binds the RAN-GTP, it causes the importin to loose ahold of the nuclear protein.
  • Then the RAN binds to the nuclear side of the nuclear pour complex and causes it to open itself up.
  • Then delivers importin to the cytoplasm, and then GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP and thus importin dissociates.
80
Q

What step is RAN-GTP of getting nuclear proteins into the cell?

A

3rd.)

81
Q

What are the basic steps to moving a protein through the endomembrane system?

A
  1. ) Being synthesized by ribosomes on the rough er.
  2. ) - then the protein enters the rough er and is packaged into a vesicle.
  3. ) - the protein within the vesicle moves to the cys Golgi apparatus.
  4. ) -further through the Golgi apparatus being modified in various ways as it goes.
  5. ) - it is packaged into a new vesicle in the trans Golgi and then delivered to its final destination.
82
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

A group of cellular structures that function together as a unit, i.e. there is a lot of movement between these cellular structures.
Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi, transport vesicles, lysosomes, plasma membrane

83
Q

What Cellular organelles are considered to apart of the endomembrane system?

A
  • rough er, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, cellular membrane, smooth er, transport vesicles.
84
Q

How did we discover learn the steps involved in the process of the endomembrane system?

A
  • George Palade: pulse-chase experiment: very good at tracking the movement of something through a pathway, when you can’t directly tell what is happening.
    1. ) they picked a cell from the pancreases, because it is an area that produces lots of proteins.
    2. ) Grow cells in normal or typical media, then replace media with some that contains radioactively labeled aminos.
    3. ) leave for approax. 5 minutes than replace with normal media.
    4. ) Therefore, any proteins produced in this time frame are radioactively labeled ( so you can see) (pulse) .
    5. ) How long you can wait before you end the experiment= chase.
    6. ) they repeated and manipulated the chase to get a very robust pathway in which proteins moved through the cell.
85
Q

What were the results of the cellular pulse-chase expt?

A
  • right after the pulse = proteins were found in the rough Er
  • Short chase= most of the labeled proteins in the Golgi apparatus.
  • Longer chase= most of the proteins were in transport vesicles or had been secreted.
86
Q

How do proteins get into the rough Er in the first place?

A
  1. ) - Er signal sequence is synthesized.
  2. ) - ER signal sequence binds to the signal recognition particle. (SRP)
  3. ) SRP binds to receptor (Translocon)
  4. ) Once the pair (SRP + ER signal sequence) binds to the Translocon it signals the SRP to dip.
  5. ) Following the release of SRP, protein synthesis resumes and the rest of the protein is made and pushed back through the translocon.
  6. ) This puts it back into the Rough ER, the protein sequence is cut off and the protein folds.
87
Q

-Er signal sequence?

A

Stretch of amino acids at the amino terminus (equivalent of NLS, but just meant for Rough ER)

88
Q

Where is SRP located

A

Cytoplasm

89
Q

Where does the second level of nuclear membrane sorting occur?

A

Trans Golgi apparatus.

90
Q

How many molecular address do nuclear proteins contain?

A

2, this one gets it to the correct vesicle

91
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A
  • network of fibers that runs throughout the cell, and gives the cell its internal shape/structure.
  • Can be very important in movement/function.
  • Can also play a role in movement.
92
Q

What are the three kinds of cytoskeletons seen in eukaryotes?

A
  • Microfilaments: composed of ( Actin)
  • Microtubules: composed of ( Tubulin dimer)
  • Intermediate filaments ( Various)
93
Q

What are microfilaments?

How many actins are in a microfilament?

A
  • Form of cytoskeleton
  • they are long ( 7-9nm), skinny and composed of actin.
  • assembles into a polymer
  • two actin
  • 2
94
Q

What dictates the manner in which actin filaments bundle and organize?

A
  • The proteins that they associate with.
95
Q

T/F actin filaments are highly dynamic?

A

True, they are easy to tear down and rebuild.

96
Q

Myosin is what form of a protein, and what does it serve to do?

A

Motor protein- binds to something in the cytoskeleton and hydrolyzes atp and uses that energy to move along the cytoskeleton.

97
Q

What are actin myosin interactions important for?

A
  • muscle contraction
  • cell division
  • cytoplasmic streaming in plants
98
Q

what are Intermediate filaments?

A
  • slightly larger in diameter
  • very stable
  • difficult to make and highly unlikely to be broken down.
  • long protein strands that are robust and rope like.
99
Q

What are some of the differing forms of intermediate filaments?

A
  • Skin ( keratin)
  • neurons ( long axon projections #nuerofilaments)
  • muscle tissue
  • lamin ( inside the nucleus under its membrane)
100
Q

What is the one intermediate protein that all eukaryote make?

A
  • lamin
101
Q

What are Microtubules?

A
  • largest out of the eukaryotic filaments (25 nm across)
  • a-b tubulin
  • hallow
  • highly dynamic structure.
  • central organizing cite within the cell.
102
Q

What does it mean to be a highly dynamic structure?

A
  • Contains a plus end and a minus end.

- end that is more likely to add sub units an one that is likely to lose sub-units.

103
Q

What is a centrosome?

What about in relation to a microtubule?

A
  • All cells contain at least one.
  • composed of two centrioles that are surrounded by a haze of proteins.
  • growth branch’s out from this point
  • anchors the minus end of microtubules so they don’t shrink.
104
Q

What is the function of the motor proteins in microtubules

A

( Kinesin and dynein) are microtubule motor proteins
serves to move the microtubule towards plus/minus end.

105
Q

What is the difference between Kinesin and Dynein?

A

Kinesin- motor protein that moves its cytoskeleton towards the plus end of the microtubule.
(away from the centrosome)
——————————————–
Dynein- motor protein that moves its cytoskeleton towards the minus end toward the minus end of the microtubule.
(Toward the centrosome)

106
Q

What are the two cellular appendages discussed that are microtubule based in their structure?

A
  • Cilia: tend to be very short, uses a sweeping like motion to make it through various environments. Sweeps liquid over an environment
    ( small microtubule appendages)
    ——————————————-
  • Flagellum: tend to be very long, uses a pulse like movement pattern to move through watery environments.
    ( Sperm cells are the only ones in humans)
107
Q

What is the highly organized microtubule structure seen in a cross section of a cilia and flagella?

A
  • axoneme; highly organized microtubule structure inside of cilia or flagella that is composed of several rings or doublets.
  • Key for coordinated bending and cilia/flagellum movement.
108
Q

t/f Bacteria has a cytoskeleton?

A

false, they have proteins that assembly very similarly to eukaryotic cytoskeletons.

109
Q

microfilaments=actin filaments?

A

Yep.

110
Q

What is a spoke?

A

Flexible protein found in the axoneme, connecting the dynein arms.

Biology 202: (39 decks)

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