Chapter 3 Flashcards
dehydration synthesis leads to the formation of ____?
polymers and water
during the breakdown of polymers, what reaction takes place?
hydrolysis
list three monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
cellulose and starch are examples of ____?
polysaccharides
plant cell walls contain an abundance of ____?
cellulose
lactose is a disaccharide formed by the formation of a ____ bond between glucose and ____?
glycosidic; galactose
phospholipids are important components of ____?
the plasma membrane of animal cells
the monomers that make up proteins are called ___?
amino acids
the alpha helix and the beta helix are part of which protein structure?
secondary
a nucleotide of DNA may contain ___?
deoxyribose, thymine, and a phosphate group
the building blocks of nucleic acids are
nucleotides
organic molecules consist primarily of ____?
carbon bonded to carbon, or carbon bonded to other atoms with unpaired valence electrons
how many covalent bonds can carbon form?
up to 4
what are functional/side groups?
groups of atoms with specific properties that give macromolecules certain characteristics
what is the most common functional group?
hydroxyl
how are biological molecules built?
from smaller subunits, like legos
what is a monomer?
one subunit of a biological molecule (lego block)
what is a polymer?
multiple monomers together (lego house)
what is the chemical reaction that builds polymers from monomers?
dehydration synthesis
write the general formula for dehydration synthesis
1 monomer + 1 monomer = 1 polymer + H20
how are polymers bound by dehydration synthesis?
by oxygen
what is a byproduct of dehydration synthesis?
water
what happens in hydrolysis?
polymers are broken down into monomers using a water molecule, yielding H+ and OH-
what is the ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?
1:2:1
what does the empirical formula of a molecule tell you?
the ratio of atoms in that molecule
what is the primary monomer used to build polymers by biological systems?
glucose
why is glucose a good energy storage molecule?
it stores energy in the bonds between its monomers
what is the empirical formula for glucose?
C6H12O6
what structure do the carbons in the monosaccharide glucose link to form?
a ring
what is a monosaccharide?
a single monomer, or building block of carbohydrates
name an isomer of glucose
fructose
what is an isomer?
molecules with the same empirical formula, but different atom positions that make it act different
name a stereoisomer of glucose
galactose
what is a stereoisomer?
molecules with the same empirical formula, but their hydroxyl groups flips to the other side, this structural difference makes them act different
what are disaccharides composed of?
two monomers
what are disaccharides used for?
sugar transport or energy storage
list two disaccharides
sucrose, lactose
what joins individual carbohydrate monomers to build disaccharide polymers?
glycosidic bonds
look up a video on this
what are polysaccharides?
many monomers, linked through glycosidic bonds
what do polysaccharides do?
energy storage and structural support
what is the polysaccharide energy storage form in plants?
starch, in potato tubers, corn, rice
what is the polysaccharide energy storage form in animals?
glycogen, in muscles and liver
what is the polysaccharide structural support form in plants?
cellulose, in cell walls
what is the polysaccharide structural support form in animals?
chitin, in exoskeletons, arthropods, and in the cell walls of fungi
the more monomers the more ___?
energy
what is the exoskeleton of a lobster made of?
chitin
list the seven protein functions
- enzyme catalysts
- defense
- transport
- support
- motion
- regulation
- storage
describe the enzyme catalyst function of proteins
proteins speed up reactions of conserve energy
describe the defense function of proteins
proteins make up keratin and bones, which help to defend our bodies and organs
describe the transport function of protein
there are transport proteins in our body, like hemoglobin, which transport oxygen and other life sustaining things
describe the support function of protein
proteins make up bones, and there are structural proteins in cells
describe the motion function of protein
2 major proteins cause muscle contraction
describe the regulation function of protein
hormones are proteins that help with homeostasis
describe the storage function of protein
proteins can also be used as energy storage molecules
what are the monomers of protein?
amino acids
how many amino acids are there?
20
how many amino acids are essential for life that we can’t make ourselves?
10
what is the function group that determines an amino acid’s characteristics called?
the R group
describe the structure of an amino acid
central carbon atom surrounded by groups
what groups surround the carbon atom in an amino acid?
amino group, side chain, carboxyl group
what dictates the chemical properties of amino acids?
the R group
what are the 5 classifications of amino acids?
- nonpolar
- polar
- charged
- aromatic
- special function
what is it called when two amino acids join?
a dipeptide
what determines the function of a protein?
shape
what must be maintained for proteins to function?
structure
what is the primary structure of a protein?
the simplest structure, chains of amino acids linked by covalent peptide bonds
where is the primary structure found?
in smaller proteins
can a long chain of amino acids fit easily into a small cell?
no
how do cells fit long amino acid chains inside?
they fold them into secondary and tertiary structures
what is the secondary structure or a protein?
interaction of groups in the polypeptide backbone
what is the alpha helix?
one of the secondary structures of proteins, shaped like a coiled spring
what is the beta helix?
one of the secondary structures of proteins, pleated/folded like a sheet of paper
what is the tertiary structure of a protein?
protein folding (frotein!)
what aids protein folding in the tertiary structure?
chaperone proteins
what is the quarternary structure of a protein?
a big ole molecule with different regions of different complexity, 4 separate regions of protein globbed down to fit in the cell
what holds the shape of proteins?
CHEMICAL BONDS
list the kinds of chemical bonds that hold the shape of proteins?
hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, ionic bonds, van der Waals attraction, hydrophobic exclusion
what is the special type of covalent bond that links amino acids?
peptide bonds
what is denaturation?
when proteins lose their shape, and consequently, their function
what three things cause proteins to denature?
- high heat
- pH
- salinity of environment
all outside of the protein’s normal range
is denaturation always bad?
no, proteins have to be denatured by stomach acid for digestive enzymes to break apart amino acids and reuse
give a common visible example of protein denaturation
eggs turning white when cooked
are lipids soluble in water?
no
why are lipids insoluble in water?
their high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds makes them hydrophobic
list the four main types of lipids
- fats and oils
- waxes
- phospholipids
- steroids
what do fats and oils do?
store energy in nonpolar covalent bonds, hold more energy than carbohydrates, they are insulators, provide organ protection and energy storage in adipose tissue, and provide cushioning
what do waxes do?
they provide structure
what is something cool that oils do for ducks?
they help them float and stay waterproof
what do steroids do?
they help regulate and maintain homeostasis
what are triglycerides composed of?
1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
what are fatty acids composed of?
long hydrocarbon chains
what are the two types of fatty acids?
saturated and unsaturated
what makes a fatty acid saturated?
at every available bonding location where carbon isn’t bonded to carbon, it is bonded with hydrogens
what makes a fatty acid unsaturated?
some carbons are double-bonded, which means less space for hydrogens to bond to carbon, so there are fewer hydrogens
which fatty acid is solid at room temperature?
saturated fatty acids
what do the double bonds between carbons add to unsaturated fatty acids?
kinks in the hydrocarbon chain, which makes them not solid at room temperature
what are the two types of triglycerides?
animal fats and plant fats (oils)
which type of triglyceride is solid at room temperature?
animal fats, like bacon grease
which type of triglyceride is liquid at room temperature?
plant fats (oils) like avocado oil
what plant oil is solid at room temperature and why?
coconut oil, because it’s a monounsaturated fat
why are saturated fats solid at room temperature?
they have no kinks in their hydrocarbon chain,so they can pack together closely
why are unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?
the kinks from the double-bonded carbon gives space in the hydrocarbon chain, it can’t lay flat together
what is the structure of polyunsaturated fats?
two or more carbon double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
where are polyunsaturated fats found?
nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens, and krill
why are polyunsaturated fats good for you?
they have been shown to decrease the risk of heart attacks
what are trans fats?
artificially made unsaturated fats with trans-isomer fatty acid
are trans fats ever saturated?
no, but they can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated
where do you find processing of polyunsaturated fatty acids?
food production
what health risk do trans fats increase?
coronary disease
do trans fats occur naturally?
yes, but only a few
how are trans fats manipulated and why?
chemically, to change structure
what does chemical hydrogenation do?
converts a pair of cis-isomers into trans-unsaturated fats instead of hydrogenating them completely
what’s an easy way to say what partially hydrogenated means?
they forced as much hydrogen into a molecule as they could
give two examples of partially hydrogenated foods
margarine, old formula crisco
what are phospholipids composed of?
one polar head, two nonpolar saturated fatty acid tails
are phospolipids polar or nonpolar?
both
what makes phospholipids partially polar?
the added phosphate group’s negative charge
what happens to phospholipids in water?
they organize into bilayers and micelles, with the polar heads facing towards the water, and the nonpolar tails facing away from the water
what is the basis of biological membranes?
phospholipid bilayers
what are the two nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA
what is the function of nucleic acids?
storage, transmission, and use of genetic information, basis of heredity
what are the polymers of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
what are nucleotides composed of?
sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base
what is the sugar is DNA?
deoxyribose
what is the sugar in RNA?
ribose
what are the two types of nitrogenous bases?
purines and pyrimidines
how many purines are there, and what are they?
2, adenine and guanine
how many pyrimidines are there, and what are they?
3, cytosine, thymine, and uracil (RNA only)
what structure do the purines form?
two-ring structure
what structure do they pyrimidines form?
one-ring structure
what bonds link DNA?
phosphodiester bonds
what is the structure of DNA?
double helix, strands are complimentary, purine matches with pyrimidine, vice versa
what is the complimentary pyrimidine to the purine adenine?
thymine
what is/are the complimentary pyrimidines to the purine guanine?
guanine in DNA and uracil in RNA
what bonds link the nitrogenous bases in DNA?
hydrogen bonds
what is the function of RNA?
it is the baker! it reads the DNA recipe, assembles amino acid ingredients fro ribosome oven to make protein bread
how does RNA differ from DNA?
its sugar is ribose, it contains uracil instead of guanine, it is single stranded, and usually pretty small, whereas DNA can be pretty big
list three extra nucleotides
ATP, NAD+, and FAD
what is the function of ATP?
primary energy currency of the cell
what is the function of NAD+ and FAD?
they are ELECTRON CARRIERS for many cellular reactions
how are the four biological macromolecules alike?
have an essay response
how are the four biological macromolecules different?
have an essay response
