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Chapter 28 Flashcards

1
Q

What are protists, and what are they closely related to?

A

unicellular groups of eukaryotes

Closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than other protists

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2
Q

What domain are protists, and how do they get nutrition?

A

Eukarya

Can be photoautotrophs or heterotrophs
Can be mixotrophs- combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

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3
Q

How can protists reproduce? (3)

A

Can be asexual, sexual, or at least undergo meiosis and fertilization

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4
Q

How do eukaryotic cells differ? (2)

A

Have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Well-developed cytoskeleton- for structure and shape

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5
Q

What do prokaryotes have instead of organelles?

A

subcellular organelles to carry out functions

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6
Q

What four supergroups of eukaryotes exist?

A

Excavata, “SAR” clade, Archaeplastida, and Unikonta

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7
Q

What does excavata mean, what does it have, what kind of organisms are in it, and what kind of taxonomic group is it?

A

“excavated feeding groove from one side of a cell body

Based on the study of their cytoskeletons

Modified mitochondria, flagella

Includes parasites, diplomonads, parabasalids, and euglenozoans

monophyletic

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8
Q

What is the SAR clade include?

A

includes important photosynthetic organisms like diatoms
Includes amoebas and malaria

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9
Q

What does the archaeplastida group include?

A

Algae and land plants

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10
Q

What does the group Unikonta includ?

A

ameobas, animals, fungi, and other protists

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11
Q

Why is the supergroup branching not reliable? (2)

A

Some branches are still under active debate

Shows that they diverge from a common ancestor simultaneously
This is not correct, but we know what organisms diverged first

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12
Q

Why are protists so diverse?

A

Because of endosymbiosis- when one organism lives inside the cells of a host

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13
Q

When did mitochondria evolve, and how?

A

evolved before plastids

Host cell engulfed an alpha proteobacterium that would later become a mitochondrion

The engulfing cell was from an archaeal lineage

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14
Q

how did plastids evolve?

A

A photosynthetic cyanobacteria gave rise to two lineages

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15
Q

What lineages did the original plastid evolve into?

A

Photosynthetic protists and algae

Algae underwent secondary endosymbiosis- they were ingested in the food vacuoles of heterotrophic eukaryotes and became endosymbionts themselves

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16
Q

How many membranes do cynanobacteria and plastids of red and green algae have?

A

2

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17
Q

How are transport proteins on red/green algae membranes related to those on cyanobacteria?

A

homologous

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18
Q

what are nucleomorphs?

A

genes found in nucleus that act as a vestigial nucleus in plastids, similar to found in green algae

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19
Q

What are diplomonads (3)

A

possess mitosomes (reduced mitochondria)
Lack a functioning ETC and cannot use oxygen for glycolysis
Possesses two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
ex- giardia intestinalis

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20
Q

What are parabasalids? (2)

A

possess hydrogenosomes (reduced mitochondria)

Can generate some energy anaerobically, releasing hydrogen gas as a byproduct

ex- trichomonas vaginalis

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21
Q

How do diplomonads and parabasalids relate?

A

lack plastids and have highly modified mitochondria

Found in anaerobic environments

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22
Q

What are euglenozoans?

A

Diverse clade of predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, mixotrophs, and parasites

Possess a rod with either spiral or a crystalline structure inside their flagella

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23
Q

What are kinetoplastids?

A

possess kinetoplast (single, large mitochondrion containing mass of DNA)

ex- trypanosoma (sleeping sickness)

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24
Q

How do kinetoplastids evade immune responses?

A

by switching surface proteins
Due to mutations by producing millions of copies of genes

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25
What are euglenids?
possess a pocket at one end of the cell from which one or two flagella emerge Some are mixotrophs
26
How do euglenids obtain energy?
They are mixotrophs, depending on light availability
27
What are the three major clades in the SAR clades, and how are they similar (3)
stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians Monophyletic Similar genome DNA sequence
28
When did stramenopiles and alveolates originate, and how? (4)
originated more than a billion years ago Common ancestor engulfed a single, photosynthetic red alga Emerged from secondary endosymbiosis Some lack plastids or their remnants The reason for this is still unknown
29
What do stramenopiles have, and examples? (3)
possess flagellum wiith numerous fine, hairlike projection Paired with a nonhairy flagellum Includes important photosynthetic organisms like diatoms, golden algae, and brown algae
30
What are diatoms? (2)
unicellular algae that have a glass-like wall made of silicon dioxide embedded in an organic matrix So abundant that they affect global carbon levels Can bloom when ample nutrients are available
31
What is the structure of a diatom wall, and where are they found?
Wall consists of two overlapping parts Wall provides protection from pressure Massive accumulations of fossilized diatoms wall are major constituents of diatomaceous earth
32
What do golden algae possess, and how do they obtain energy? (3)
possess biflagellated cells (two flagella attached near one end of the cell) Components of plankton Some are photosynthetic, some are mixotrophs
33
What are brown algae? (2)
largest and most complex algae Multicellular
34
What makes up the brown algae, and how did they evolve? (4)
Some possess holdfast- specialized tissues and organs that anchor the alga Some have a stipe- stem Supports blades- leaves Holdfast, stipe, and blades evolved independently from plants Algae adapted to enable photosynthetic surfaces to be near the surface
35
What is alternation of generation?
Life cycle of algae Alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid cells
36
What are diploid cells in alternation of generation called, and what doe it produce?
sporophytes, producing haploid zoospores
37
How do zoospores move, and what do they develop into?
Zoospores develop into haploid, multicellular gametophytes, which produce gametes
38
How do sporophytes rise?
Two gametes unite to form a diploid zygote
39
Heteromorphic vs isomorphic alternation of generation
Some are Heteromorphic- sporophytes and gametophytes are structurally different Others are Isomorphic generation- sporophytes and gametophytes look similar
40
What are alveolates, and what do they include?
Possess alveoli- membrane-encolsed sacs under the plasma membrane Includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates
41
What two things do dinoflagellates possess, how do they get nutrition, and what do they cause?
Possess cells reinforced by cellulose plates Possess two flagella Half are purely heterotrophic Includes phytoplankton Blooms cause red tides Produces toxins that kill fish
42
What are apicomplexans, what do they possess, and an example?
Animal parasites Spread infectious cells called sporozoites Apex- one end Containing complex organelles specialized in penetrating host cells malaria
43
What is malaria, how did it evolve, and where does it live?
caused by mosquitoes carrying Plasmodium Plasmodium evolved to form resistant varieties Lives in cells, not identified by the immune system
44
What do ciliates possess, what do they eat, how do they vary genetically, and how do they reproduce?
protists using cilia to move and feed Possess a tiny micronuclei and a large macronuclei Preys on bacteria and other protists Conjugation binary fission
45
What are rhizarians, and what do they include?
Subgroup for SAR clade, amoebas
46
How do amoebas feed?
Pseudopodia, extensions bulgin from anywhere on the cell surface
47
What are radiolarians, and how is its psuedopodia reinforced?
Possess delicate, intricately symmetrical internal skeletons that are made of silica Pseudopodia is reinforced by microtubules, covered in cytoplasm
48
What are forams, how do they gain energy, what do their pseudopodia do, and where are they found?
Possesses porous shells called tests photosynthesis pseudopodia- swimming, test formation, and feeding marine ssediment, used to age sedimentary rock
49
What are cercozoans, how do they feed, and how do they get energy?
Amoeboid and flagellated protists Feed using threadlike pseudopodia Most are heterotrophs Others are mixotrophs Some are also autotrophs
50
What is archaeplastida?
Arose from an ancient protist that engulfed a cyanobacterium
51
What is red algae, why are they red, and how do they reproduce?
Most abundant large algae Most aremulticellular red due to phycoerythrin reproduce sexually through alternation of generation depends on water current to fuse gametes
52
What color is red algae and different depths?
Those in shallow water have less, being greenish red Those in deep depths areblack Some lack pigment and are heterotrophs
53
What do green algae possess, and what are they divided into?
Chloroplasts similar to land plants Divided into charophytes and chlorophytes
54
What are charophytes?
Green algae closely rwlated to land plants
55
What three ways did chlorophytes evolve, and how do they reproduce?
Form colonies of individual cells to produce scum Multicellular bodies form by cell division and differentiation Repeated cell division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic division Possess both sexual and asexual reproductive stage
56
What do unikonta include, when did it diverge, and what two clades are included?
Includes animals, fungi, and some protists hypothesized to have diverged first Two clades of amoebozonas and opisthokonts
57
Why is Unikonta controversial?
Which group diverge first is still unknown
58
What are amoebozoans?
Amoebas with lobe/tubee-shaped pseudopodia
59
What are slime modes, and what did they diverge into?
Aka mycetozoans Once thought to be fungi Diverged into plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds
60
What are plasmodial slime molds, their color, diet, and colony it forms?
Brightly colored, often yellow or orange Forms a mass called plasmodium Unicellular Feeds on moist soil, mulch, and rotting logs
61
How do cellular slime modes function? (3)
During the feeding stage, cells function individually When food is depleted, they function as a unit Cells in the stalk die as they dry out, while spores on the top survive and reproduce
62
What are tubulinids, and how do they obtain energy?
Group of amoebozoans with lobe/tube-shaped pseudopodia Most are heterotrophs
63
What are entamoebas?
Parasitic amoebas
64
What do opsithokonts include?
animals, fungi, and protists
65
What are two examples of symbiotic protists?
Photosynthetic dinoflagellates provide food for coral polyps Wood-digesting protists inhabit gut of termite species
66
Two important roles of protists in habitat
as symbiont and as a producer
67
What are producers?
organisms that use energy from light, converting CO2 to organic compounds
68
How impactful are photosynthetic protists?
30% of the world’s photosynthesis is performed by protists 20% by prokaryotes
69
What do rising sea surface temperatures do? (3)
reduce marine producers Producers rely on nutrients brought from upwelling Warm water prevents upwelling

BI158 (16 decks)

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