Chapter 26 & 27 - The Urinary System Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 4 components of the urinary system?
A
Kidneys (2), Ureters (2), Urinary bladder (1), Urethra (1)
2
Q
Name the 8 functions of the kidneys
A
Regulation of the BLOOD IONIC COMPOSITION, Regulation of the PH of blood, regulation of the BLOOD VOLUME, regulation of BLOOD PRESSURE, maintenance of BLOOD OSMOLARITY, production of HORMONES, regulation of blood GLUCOSE LEVEL, EXCRETION of wastes and foreign substances.
3
Q
For the kidneys to regulate the pH in blood, what happens?
A
The kidneys excrete H+ into urine and conserve bicarbonate ions and HCO3
4
Q
To regulation the blood volume, what do the kidneys do?
A
They conserve or eliminate blood in the urine
5
Q
How do the kidneys help to regulate blood pressure?
A
They secrete the enzyme renin which raises blood pressure
6
Q
How do the kidneys help to maintain the blood’s osmolarity?
A
The separately regulate the the loss of water and solutes in urine.
7
Q
The kidneys produce what 2 hormones?
A
Calcitriol & erythropoietin
8
Q
This hormone is an active form of vitamin D which helps in the absorption of calcium from food in the GI tract into the blood.
A
Calcitriol
9
Q
This hormone stimulates the production of blood cells.
A
Erythropoietin
10
Q
How do the kidneys help to regulate the blood glucose level?
A
They can synthesize glucose from certain amino acids during gluconeogenesis
11
Q
This is the process by which non-carbohydrate sources are used to make glucose; this glucose can be released into the blood as needed.
A
Gluconeogenesis
12
Q
Ammonia and urea are wastes from the breakdown of?
A
Amino acids
13
Q
Bilirubin results from the breakdown of?
A
Hemoglobin
14
Q
Creatinine results from the breakdown of?
A
Creatine phosphate in muscle
15
Q
Uric acid results from the breakdown of?
A
Nucleic acids
16
Q
Kidneys excrete wastes by forming?
A
Urine
17
Q
Paired reddish kidney-bean shaped organ
A
Kidney
18
Q
What is the position of the kidneys?
A
Retroperitoneal (posterior) to the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity and at the level of the lumbar vertebrae
19
Q
Which kidney is slightly lower than the other? Because?
A
The right / the space occupied by the liver
20
Q
The kidneys regulate what 3 things within blood? They produce?
A
The composition, volume, pressure / urine
21
Q
A typical adult kidney is how long? Wide? Thick?
A
4-5 inches / 2-3 inches wide / 1 inch thick
22
Q
The fissure at the concave medial part of the kidney from which the ureter, blood vessels (renal artery & renal vein), lymphatic vessels, and nerves exit?
A
The renal hilum
23
Q
What are the 3 layers of tissue that surround each kidney?
A
renal fascia, adipose capsule, renal capsule
24
Q
This tissue layer surrounding the kidneys is a superficial layer, a thin layer of connective
A
Renal fascia
25
This is the middle layer of tissue surrounding each kidney that is composed of fatty tissue and protects the kidneys.
Adipose tissue
26
This is the deep layer of tissue surrounding the kidneys. It is composed of connective tissue and is continuous with the outer coat of the ureter. It protects the kidney and maintains its shape.
Renal capsule
27
Internally, the kidneys have superficial outer layer that is called? A deeper inner layer called? Which one is usually darker colored than the other?
Renal cortex / renal medulla / the medulla is generally darker
28
These are cone-shaped and are found in the renal medulla
Renal pyramids
29
The pointed end of each renal pyramid is called?
Renal papillae
30
These are the portions of the renal cortex that extends between the renal pyramids?
Renal columns
31
This is the functional unit of the kidneys and produces urine.
Nephron
32
Each has about how many nephrons?
About 1 million
33
These nephrons are found primarily in the cortex and make up what percentage of nephrons?
80-85%
34
These nephrons extend from the cortex into the medulla and make up 15-20% of nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons
35
Urine drains from a nephron through ducts that lead to cuplike structures called?
Calyces
36
This calyx is small and more numerous (8-18 per kidney)? This calyx is larger and less numerous (2-3 per kidney)
Minor calyx / major calyx
37
Name the order in which urine flows.
Renal papillae ➡ minor calyx ➡ major calyx ➡ becomes urine ➡ renal pelvis ➡ ureter ➡ urinary bladder.
38
Where does urine flow first?
Minor calyx
39
After passing through the minor calyx, urine flows into?
The major calyx
40
From the major calyx, urine drains into a single large cavity called?
The renal pelvis
41
This is a cavity within the kidney that contains part of the renal pelvis, the clayces, and branches of the renal blood vessels and nerves.
Renal sinus
42
2 parts of a nephron
Renal corpuscle & renal tubule
43
The part of a nephron where blood plasma is filtered.
Renal corpuscle
44
The renal corpuscle consists of what 2 parts?
Glomerulus and glomerular (bowman's) capsule
45
This is the capillary network of the renal corpuscle (a cluster of capillaries around the end of a kidney tubule where waste products are filtered from the blood).
Glomerulus
46
This part of the renal corpuscle that surrounds the capillaries?
Glomerular (bowman's) capsule
47
Part of the nephron where the filtered fluid passes.
Renal tubule
48
The renal tubule of a nephron consists of what 3 parts?
Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule.
49
The renal corpuscle and both convoluted tubules lie within what part of the kidney?
The renal cortex
50
The loop of henle lies within which part of the kidney? It returns to?
Extends into the medulla and returns to the renal cortex
51
Cortical nephrons have what size loops of henle?
Short
52
Juxtamedullary nephrons have what size loops of henle?
Long
53
The distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons empty into?
A collecting duct
54
Collecting ducts unite to form? This drain into?
Papillary ducts / minor clyces
55
These form the entire wall of the Bowman's capsule, renal tubule, and wall ducts
a single layer of epithelial cells
56
The number of nephron cells is?
constant from birth
57
Will new nephrons form is they are injured or diseased?
no
58
If one kidney is surgically removed, what happens?
The remaining kidney enlarges and eventually is able to filter blood at about 80% of the rate of two normal kidneys
59
From the renal pelvis, the urine passes out of the kidneys through?
the ureters
60
A ureter is a tube that carries urine from each kidney to?
the urinary bladder
61
how long is a ureter?
10-12 inches
62
This type of contraction of the walls of the ureters push urine towards the bladder. What also contributes?
Peristaltic contractions / pressure and gravity
63
The 3 layers of the ureters
mucosa, muscularis, adventitia
64
This layer of the ureter is the deepest layer. It is a mucous membrane with transitional epithelium (stretches) and an underlying lamina propria of connective tissue mucus that protects the cells in the walls from acidic pH of urine.
mucosa
65
This middle layer of the ureter wall is composed of an inner layer of longitudinal muscles and an outer layer of circular muscles (opposite that of the GI tract which has inner circular and outer longitudinal). The distal end of the ureters have an additional longitudinal muscle layer outside of the circular muscles.
muscularis
66
This is the superficial layer of the wall of the ureters. It is made of connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
adventitia
67
This is a hollow muscular organ that temporarily stores urine.
urinary bladder
68
The bladder does this as it fills with urine. What happens once the bladder is full?
stretches / empties
69
From the urinary bladder, urine passes through this before it heads out of the body through?
urethra / external urethral orifice
70
In the floor of the urinary bladder is a small triangular area called?
trigone
71
The trigone contains the openings from? (2)
ureters & internal urethral orifice
72
this is the opening into the urethra
internal urethral orifice
73
The trigone is smooth in appearance but the rest of the urinary bladder has folds in the mucosa called?
rugae
74
The wall of the urinary bladder has the same 3 layers as?
the ureters
75
What allows the urinary bladder to stretch?
transitional epithelium
76
The muscularis of the urinary bladder has the three layers of muscle arranged like that of?
the distal ureters
77
involuntary circular, smooth muscle forms this which surrounds the internal urethral orifice
involuntary circular smooth muscle
78
This is composed of skeletal muscle and is located inferior to the internal urethral sphincter
external urethral sphincter
79
What is the outermost layer of the urinary bladder?
The adventitia of connective tissue
80
Pressure builds up within the bladder as it?
fills with urine
81
The pressure from urine within the bladder compresses the ureters to prevent?
the urine from flowing back up towards the kidneys
82
Despite the pressure that compresses the openings of the ureters, this can still happen?
microorganisms can still spread to the kidneys and cause infection
83
This is a small tube leading from the internal urethral orifice in the floor of the urinary bladder to the exterior of the body.
Urethra
84
This is the passageway for discharging urine from the body. It also discharges semen in males.
The urethra
85
The opening of the urethra to the exterior of the body is?
external urethral orifice
86
How long is the female urethra?
1.5 inches
87
The male urethra is how long?
8 inches
88
The 3 main regions of the male urethra
Prostatic, membranous, spongy
89
This part of the urethra passes through the prostate.
prostatic
90
The part of the urethra passess through the deep muscles of the perineum.
membranous
91
This part of the urethra passes through the penis
spongy urethra
92
The discharge of urine from the urinary bladder is called?
micturition (urination)
93
When the volume of urine within the bladder reaches about this much, the pressure stimulates stretch receptors in the wall.
200-400 mL
94
The stretch receptors send nerve impulses to?
the micturition center.
95
Where is micturition center located?
in the sacral region of the spinal cord
96
Parasympathetic impulses travel from the micturition center to the wall of the bladder which causes it to contract and cause?
The urethral sphincter to relax.
97
The maturation center also inhibits somatic motor neurons that innervate the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter causing?
it to relax
98
What occurs as the external urethral sphincter relaxes?
urination
99
The cerebral cortex allows us to do what to our urine for a limited period of time. How does this work?
hold it / by exerting voluntary control over the external urethral sphincter and pelvic floor muscles.
100
oxygenated blood is carried to the kidneys by?
the right and left renal arteries
101
the right and left renal arteries branch from?
the abdominal aorta
102
within each kidney, the renal arter divides into?
several levels of smaller arteries (segmental, interlobar, arcuate, interlobular)
103
interlobular arteries enter the renal cortex and branch into?
afferent arterioles
104
Each nephron receives one afferent arteriole which divides into a tangled, ball-shaped capillary network called?
glomerulus
105
From the glomerulus, the capillaries reunite to form?
an efferent arteriole
106
efferent arterioles divide to form these which surround the renal tubule part of the nephron
peritubular capillaries
107
this consists of long capillaries that loop into the medulla of some nephrons
vasa recta
108
the peritubular capillaries reunite to form several levels of these? (2)
venules (peritubular) and small veins (interlobular, arcuate, interlobar)
109
Deoxygenated blood exits the kidneys through?
right and left renal veins
110
The right and left renal veins lead to?
the inferior vena cava
111
to produce urine, nephrons and collecting ducts perform these 3 basic processes
glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion
112
This is the first step of urine production, water and most solutes move across the wall of glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule and then into the renal tubule.
glomerular filtration
113
During this process of urine production, as filtered fluid passes through the various tubules and collecting ducts, materials such as wastes, drugs, and excess ions are secreted into the fluid from the blood.
tubular secretion
114
The passage of water and small solutes from the blood in the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule is called?
glomerular filtration
115
Most plasma proteins and blood cells do not pass from the blood because?
they are too large
116
The blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries is normally higher?
than the pressure in the capsule
117
The difference in pressure between the glomerular capillaries and the capsule forces the fluids and small solutes out of?
the blood
118
This is the use of pressure to force fluids and solutes through a membrane.
filtration
119
The amount of filtrate formed in all of the renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute is called?
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
120
The GFR averages how much in males and how much in females?
males: 180 liters/day
females: 150 liters/day
121
The level of GFR filtration helps to maintain?
homeostasis
122
most of the filtrate from filtration returns to the bloodstream during tubular reabsorption, though, so how many liters are actually excreted as urine per day?
1-2 liters
123
Dialtion and constriction of these affect the GFR
afferent arterioles
124
Dilation increases blood flow into the glomerulus which increases?
glomerular blood pressure and GFR
125
Constriction decreases blood flow into the glomerulus which decreases?
glomerular blood pressure and GFR
126
Through this the kidneys can help to maintain a nearly contant GFR.
renal autoregulation
127
blood flow to the glomerulus can be automatically?
increase and decreased as needed.
128
In some kidney diseases, glomerular capillaries are damaged affecting their? This can cause?
permeability Oplasma proteins can pass into the capsule from the glomerulus) / edema
129
An abnormally high amount of interstitial fluid
edema
130
The return of most of the filtered water and many of the filtered solutes to the bloodstream are called?
tubular reabsorption
131
Normally, what percentage of filtered water is reabsorbed by osmosis?
99%
132
Most solutes are reabsorbed by what process?
both active and passive
133
epithelial cells all along the renal tubule and ducts carry out? Which contributes the most?
reabsorption / proximal convoluted tubule
134
The reabsorbed substances return to the blood as it flows through?
the peritubular capillaries (and vasa recta in some nephrons)
135
The transfer of materials from the blood (and tubule cells) into tubular fluid is called?
tubular secretion
136
The secreted substances from tubular secretion include? (4)
ions (hydogen & potassium), ammonium ions NH4, creatinine, and certain drugs
137
The secretion of hydrogen ions during tubular secretion helps to control?
blood pH
138
The secretion of the other substances during tubular secretion does what?
eliminates them from the body.
139
What affects the extent of Na+ Cl- and water reabsorption as well as K+ secretion by the renal tubules
several hormones
140
The most important regulators of electrolyte reabsorption are the hormoens?
angiotensin II and aldosterone
141
This is a major hormone that regulates water reabsorption
antidiuretic hormone (ADG or vasopressin)
142
This is a hormone that inhibits both electrolyte and water reabsorption
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
143
When blood volume and blood pressure decrease, as during dhydration or hemorrhage, what happens to the walls of the afferent arterioles?
they are stretched less
144
These are smooth muscle fibers in the walls of the afferent arterioles that secrete the enzyme renin into the blood.
juxtaglomerular cells
145
What also causes renin to be released?
sympathetic stimulation
146
Renin converts angiotensinogen into?
angiotensin I
147
This is a plasma protein produced by the hepatocytes of the liver.
angiotensinogen
148
After angiotensinogen is converted into angiotensin I, it is converted by another enzyme into this which is the active form of the hormone.
angiotensin II
149
Angiotensin II has what 3 main effects in the kidneys?
1. it decreases the GFR
2. enhances reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
3. stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland to release aldosterone
150
Angiotensin II decreases the GFR by causing?
vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles.
151
angiotensin II enhances reabsorption of what in the proximal convoluted tubule?
Na+, Cl-, and water
152
angiotensin II stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland to release?
aldosterone
153
This is a mineralocorticoid which regulates the homeostasis of two mineral ions, Na+ and K+. This hormone stimulates the collecting ducts to absorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete more K+
aldosterone
154
angiotensin II causes less water to be excreted which increases?
blood volume
155
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is produced by? it is released by?
hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland
156
This hormone stimulates water reabsorption from the kidney tubules into the blood and vasoconstriction of the arterioles.
antidiuretic hormone (adh)
157
the water reabsorption from the kidney tubules into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles from ADH, results in? (2)
decreased urine production, concentrated urine, and increased blood pressue.
158
What inhibits the secretion of ADH and causes frequent urination?
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
159
A large increase in blood volume causes release of of this from the atria of the heart (as stretching occurs)
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
160
This causes decreased reabsorption of Na+ and water and suppresses secretion of aldosterone and ADH
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
161
The decreased reabsorption of Na+ and water and suppression of secretion of aldosterone and ADH results in? In addition, the urine has an increased amount of?
increased urine output and decreased blood volume and pressure / Na+
162
This is a condition where urine has an increased amount of Na+
natriuresis
163
Low blood Ca2+ levels stimulate the parathyroid glands to release?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
164
parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates cells in the renal tubules to reabsorb this into the blood.
Ca2+
165
parathyroid hormone inhibits HPO4 2- (phosphate) reabsorption causing?
phosphate excretion
166
The analysis of the properties of urine is?
urinalysis
167
normal urine output is about how many liters a day?
1-2
168
the pH range of urine is? high proteins diets do what to urine?
4.6-8.0 / increase acidity
169
What is the percentage breakdown of urine?
95% water, 5% electrolytes, cellular wastes, and substances such as drugs
170
Normal urine is free of?
protein
171
Solutes normally in urine include?
urea, creatinine, uric acid, urobilinogen
172
this is from protein breakdown
urea
173
this is from creatine phosphate and is the breakdown within muscles
creatinine
174
this is from the nucleic acid breakdown
uric acid
175
this is from hemoglobin breakdown
urobilinogen
176
abnormal components of urine include?
albumin, glucose, red blood cells, microbes
177
this is a plasma protein generally too large to be filtered out of the blood
albumin
178
this abnormal component found in urine is usually reabsorbed
glucose
179
if these are found in urine, they indicate the presence of blood due to inflammation or disease
red blood cells
180
These are bacteria, protozoans, or fungi
microbes
181
body fluids make up what percentage of total body weight in an adult? They can make up to what percentage of the body weight of an infant?
55-60% / 75%
182
Body fluids are mixtures of of solutes within a solvent called?
solution
183
The concentration of body fluids varies depending on?
conditions within the body
184
About 2/3 of body fluid is the fluid within cells called?
intracellular fluid
185
1/3 of body fluid is the fluid outside cells called?
extracellular fluid
186
About 80% of extracellular fluid is?
interstitial fluid
187
This is fluid that fills the spaces between the cells of a tissue
interstitial fluid
188
What percentage of interstitial fluid is blood plasma?
20%
189
These membranes separate body fluids. Give an example.
Selectively permeable / plasma membrane
190
Water moves into and out of cells by?
osmosis
191
What determines which direction osmosis occurs?
The concentration of solutes in the body fluids
192
What happens to the percentage of water that makes up body weight as we age?
decreases
193
The main source of body fluid is?
that which is ingested by the mouth
194
Generally, fluid intake should balance?
fluid output (by sweating, urination)
195
Body fluids contain many dissolved suchstances like? (2)
electrolytes and nonelectrolytes
196
Electrlytes are compounds that have how many ionic bonds?
one
197
This is a chemical bond formed between ions or charged atoms?
ionic bond
198
These are positively charged ions? These are negatively charged ions?
Cations / anions
199
Charged atoms have gaind or lost these which are negatively charged subatomin particles.
electrons
200
Electrolytes are capable of conducting?
an electric current
201
What happens to electrolytes when dissolved in fluid such as water?
they dissociate into ions.
202
Examples of electrolytes include mostly?
inorganic compunds such as acids, bases, and salts
203
Nonelectrolytes are compounds formed with these chemical bonds formed between atoms that share electron pairs.
covalent bonds
204
When dissolved in water, what happens to nonelectrolytes?
they do not dissociate in water to form ions and do not conduct an electric current
205
Examples of organic compounds (which do contain carbon) include?
glucose and urea
206
Many electrolytes are essential?
minerals
207
Which is more numerous: electrolytes or nonelectrolytes?
electrolytes
208
Because electrolytes are more numerous than nonelectrolytes, they control?
osmosis
209
Electrolytes help maintain what for normal cell activity?
acid-base balance
210
Because they carry an elecrical current, electrolytes are important in?
NERVE impulse conduction, MUSCLE contraction, and SECRETION of some hormones and neurotransmitters
211
The number of ions in a volume of fluid (concentration) is indicated in?
milliequivalents per liter
212
Name the 6 most important ionds include?
Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate
213
What is the most abundant extracellular ion?
sodium
214
Sodium makes up what percentage of extracellular cations?
90%
215
Why is sodium found in greater outside the cells?
Because of the sodium-potassium pump and its active tranports of Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells
216
Na+ is needed for what 2 things?
Nerve impulses conduction and muscle contraction
217
Na+ creates osmotic pressure in extracellular fluid which causes water to do what?
follow it
218
Na+ is also involved in these which prevent drastic pH changes in body fluids
buffer systems
219
pH can be lost from the body through what things?
perspiration, vomiting, diarrhea, diuretic use, and burns
220
What do most individuals usually exceed?
The body's normal daily requirements of sodium ions
221
What do the kidney's do with excess Na+? What do they do when levels are low?
excrete excess and conserve when levels are low
222
This occurs when Na+ levels are high in the blood.
hypernatremia
223
This occurs when levels are low in the blood.
hyponatremia
224
This is the most abundant intraceulluar cation
potassium
225
What two things is potassium needed for?
nerve impulse conduction and muscle contraction
226
Abnormal levels of K+ in the blood can cause what problems?
with cardiac functioning
227
This occurs when K+ levels are high in the blood. It can cause death from heart fibrillation, involuntary varfiac muscle contractions.
hyperkalemia
228
This occurs when levels are low in the blood. It can result from vomiting, diarrhea, diuretic use, and/or kidney disease.
hypokalemia
229
This is the most abundant ion in the body
calcium
230
This is mainly an extracellular electrolyte foud in the skeleton and teeth as a mineral sald (combined with phosphate HPO42-)
calcium
231
What perentage of calcium is found in the form HPO42-?
98%
232
What other two places can a small amount of Ca2+ (calcium) be found?
the blood, muscle cells and the fluid around them
233
What is the structural component of bones and teeth?
Ca2+
234
Calcium is also involved in what 3 things?
Blood clotting, muscle contraction, and the release of neurotransmitters.
235
This occurs when Ca2+ levels in the blood are high.
hypercalcemia
236
This occurs when Ca2+ levels in the blood are low?
hypcalcemia
237
As phosphate levels go up, what happens to calcium levels?
they go down
238
Magnesium is what kind of electrolyte?
intracellular
239
Where can magnesium be found in mostly? Also in?
50% in bone & 45% fluid inside of the cells
240
Magnesium (Mg2+) activates the enzymes needed to?
metabolize carbohydrates and proteins
241
Magnesium is also involved in the structure of?
DNA, RNA, and ribosomes
242
What does magnesium trigger? It is also involved in? (2)
the sodium potassium pump, involved in nervous system and muscular activity, and in myocardial functioning
243
This occurs when levels of Mg2+ in the blood are high.
hypermagnesemia
244
This occurs when levels of Mg2+ in the blood are low
hypomagnesemia
245
This is the main extracellular anion of the body.
Chloride
246
Chloride is important to osmosis because it determines?
which direction water moves by osmosis
247
Chloride is also found in combination with?
hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid (HCI) in the gastric glands of the stomach
248
This occurs when there are high levels of Cl- in the blood
hyperchloremia
249
This occurs when there are low levels of Cl- in the blood.
hypochloremia
250
Phosphate is what kind of electrolyte?
an intracellular electrolyte
251
What percentageof the phosphate in an adult is in the bones and teeth as calcium phosphate salts.
85%
252
The remainder 15% of phosphate can be found?
Combined with lipids (phospholipids) to form cellular membranes and is found in DNA, RNA, and ATP
253
Besides sodium what is also involved in buffer systems of the body?
phosphate (HPO42-)
254
This occurs when there are high levels of phosphate in the blood
hyperphosphatemia
255
This occurs when there are low levels of HPO42- in the blood.
hypophosphatemia
256
The acid-base balance in body fluids depends on?
hydrogen ion concentration
257
Solutions with more H+ than OH- are considered? They have what pH level?
acids and have a pH of less than 7
258
Solutions with more OH- than H+ are considered? They have a pH of?
bases (alkaline) and have a pH of more than 7
259
What is the pH of extracellular fluid including the blood is normally?
7.35-7.45
260
Various metabolic activities in the body produce H+ ionj, so the body tends to produce more?
acids than bases
261
To deal with pH changes, the body has these which are chemical substances that resist changes in pH. The make strong acids and bases weaker.
buffers
262
These two systems also help in keeping the pH of fluids in the body at about 7.4
respiratory and urinary system
263
What happens to the pH level if there is a raise in the CO2 levels?
raises and body fluids become more alkaline
264
What happens to the pH levels if there is an increase in CO2 in body fluids (as a result of cellular respiration)
lowers and body fluids become more acidic
265
The CO2 in blood reacts with water to form? Therefore what else can change the pH of body fluids?
carbonic acid / changes in the rate and depth of breathing
266
An increase in breathing rate and depth (hyperventilation) does what to the pH since CO2 is exhaled?
raises the pH
267
A decrease in breathing rate and depth (hypoventilation) does what to the pH since CO2 accumulates
decreases the pH
268
The pH of body fluids can affect the rate of?
breathing rate
269
If the blood becomes more acidic, the breathing rate increases as a way to?
get rid of CO2
270
If the blood becomes more alkaline, what happens to the breathing rate?
decreases
271
The kidneys carry out this which involves adding materials to the filtrate during urine formation.
tubular secretion
272
As the blood becomes more acidic,what do the kidney's do?
They excrete more H+ to raise the pH of the blood (the pH of urine is about 6, on average)
273
What do the kidneys to if the blood pH needs to be lowered? How often does this happen? Why?
Less H+ is excreted / this does not happen often, though, because bodily processes tend to make body fluids acidic
274
If the pH of the blood decreases below 7.35, what occurs?
acidiosis
275
Acidosis causes?
CNS depression and an individual can go into a coma and even die
276
If the pH of the blood increases above 7.45, what occurs?
alkalosis
277
What can happen if alkalosis occurs?
causes CNS excitation and an individual can experience nervousness, muscle spasms, convulsions, and even death
278
This is a physiological response to an acid-base imbalance that attempts to normalize blood pH
compensation
