Chapter 2 Flashcards
mastery training and slides
empiricism
the view that all knowledge comes from observed/sensory experience
empirical evidence
data collected by scientific observation
the two qualities of scientific theories are:
predictive and explanatory
the three things scientific theories must be are:
testable, falsifiable, and parsimonious
falsifiable
possible to be proven false
parsimonious
as simplistic as possible
variables
a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
independent variable
variable that is manipulated to see impact on dependent variable
dependent variable
variable that is measured to see impact from independent variable
operational definitions
definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in terms of concrete, measurable procedures
constructs
internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behavior
three types of research methods:
descriptive methods, correlational methods, and experimental methods
descriptive methods claims?
claims regarding the frequency of some behavior
correlational methods claims?
claims regarding the association between two variables
experimental methods claims?
claims about the causal relationship between two variables
types of observation:
naturalistic observation, participant observation, laboratory observation
naturalistic observation
passive observation. observers do not alter ongoing behavior (intentionally)
participant observation
active observation. observer is actively involved in situation (may alter by being involved)
laboratory observation
systematic observations made in a lab setting
descriptive methods weaknesses:
reactivity, observer bias, and self-report bias
reactivity
people acting differently because they know they are being observed
observer bias
researchers observations being influenced by prior opinions
self-report bias
inaccurate self reflections given by participants
three things about correlational studies:
examine how variables are related, involve a single group of participants, and allow researchers to make claims about association between variables but not causal claims
descriptive method
research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
correlation
the measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables
theory
set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena
meta-analysis
statistical review of many previous experiments on a single topic
statistical significance
standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance
measure
method for describing a variable’s quantity
longitudinal study
design assessing age-related changes
cross-sectional study
design assessing age-related changes; data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages
mixed longitudinal design
method for assessing age-related changes; observes a cross-section of participants over a shorter period
normal distribution
symmetrical probability function
placebo
inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment
validity
quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions
null hypothesis
states the default position that there is no real difference between two measures
double-blind procedure
design in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows who was given a placebo
desriptive statistics
methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value
inferential statistics
methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations
standard deviation
measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is
confirmation bias
noticing and remembering instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them
reliability
consistency of a measure, including test–retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency
control group
experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable
confounding variable
is irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher’s conclusions
naturalistic observation
in-depth study of a phenomenon in its environment
experimental group
participants who are exposed to the independent variable
operationalization
defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured
third variable
variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest
random assignment
each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each experimental condition
random sample
each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participant
population
the group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to
sample
the group of individuals from this population who are actually part of your study
quasi-experiment
look like “real experiments” but do not have random assignment
pro of a quasi-experiment?
useful for when manipulation isn’t feasible/ethical/possible
con of a quasi-experiment?
risk of potential confounds limits the claims that a researcher can make
