Chapter 16 part 1) Endocrine system Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine System Overview

A
  • Acts with nervous system to coordinate and integrate activity of body cells.
    • Influences metabolic (cell) activities via hormones in blood
    • Produces a slower but longer lasting effect than the nervous system
  • Endorcrinology) study of hormones and endocrine organs.
  • Controls and Regulates
    • Reproduction
    • Growth and Development
    • Mantienace of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance in the blood.
    • Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
    • Mobilization of body defenses.
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2
Q

Endocrine vs Exocrine glands

A
  • Exocrine Glands
    • produce nonhormonal substances (slaiva, sweat)
    • Secrete on membrane suface (ex; skin, tounge)
  • Endocrine Glands
    • Produce horomones
    • Lack ducts; secrete horomones into surrounding tissue.
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3
Q

Endocrine Glands (types)

A
  • Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands are all endocrine glands
  • Hypothalamus) Nueroendocrine organ
    • has both nural and endocrine functions
  • Pancreas, Gonads, and Placenta
    • have exocrine and endocrine functions
  • Adipose cells, thymus, cells in small intestine, stomach, kidneys and heat
    • all produce horomones
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4
Q

Chemical Messangers

A
  • Horomones) Long distance chemical signals
    • travel in blood or lymph
  • Autocrines) Exert effects on same cells that release them
  • Paracrines) Locally acting chemicals that affect cells that surround the secreating cell.
    • Autocrines and Paracrines are local chemical messangers that are not considered part of the endocrine system.
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5
Q

Chemisty of a Horomone

A

Two Types

  • Amino acid-based hormones
    • Amino acid derivatives, peptides, and proteins
    • Cannot pass through plasma membrane
  • Steriods
    • Synthesized from cholesteral
    • Gonaldal and adrenocortical hormones
    • can pass trhorugh plasma membrane
  • Target Cells) Tissues with reponsers for a specific hormone
    • Hormones circulate systemically but only target cells are affected.
  • Horomone action on Target cells may be to
    • Alter plasma membrane permiability/ ion channels
    • Stimulate synthesis or enymes/ protiens
    • Activate/ deactivate enzymes
    • induce secretory activity
    • stimulate mitosis
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6
Q

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

A
  • Water-siluable hormones (all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormones)
    • Act on plasma membrane receptors
    • Act via G protien second messangers (do not enter cell)
  • Lipid-Soluable hormones (steriod and thyroid hormones)
    • Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes
    • can enter the cell
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7
Q

Cyclic AMP (second messanger system)

A
  • cAMP signiling mechanism
    1. Hormone (first messanger) binds to receptor
    2. Receptor activates a G protien
    3. G protien activates/ inhibits adenylate cyclase
    4. Adenylate Cyclase Converts ATP to cAMP (secnd messanger)
    5. cAMP activated protien kinases that phosphorylaye protiens (add a phospate too)
  • Phosphorylation activates some protiens and inhibits other
    • can affect a variety of proesses in the target cell
  • cAMP is rapidly degraded by enzyme phosphodiesterase
  • Cascaded have amplification effect.
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8
Q

PIP2- calcium signaling mechanism (second messanger system)

A
  • PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism
    1. Hormone-activated G protien releases phospholipase C
    2. Phospholipase C splits membrane protein called PIP2 (Phosphatidyle Inositol Biphosphate) into two second messangers
      • Diaclyglycerol (DAG) activated protien kinases
      • Inositol Triposphate (IP3) causes Ca2+ release from intracelluar stores. Ca2+ acts as another messanger
    3. Ca2+ release alters enzyme activity and channles, or binds to regulatory protien calmodulin.
      • Calcium boynd calmodulin always amplifys cellular response.
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9
Q

Other Signaling Mechanisms

A
  • Cycilic guanosine monophospate (cGMP) is a second messanger for some homones.
  • Some work without second messagers
    • Ex) Insulin
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10
Q

Intracellular Receptors and Direct Gene Activation

A
  • Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone can diffuse into target cells and bind with intracellular receptors
  • Receptor-hormone complex enters nucleus and bind to specific region of DNA
    • Help initiate DNA transcription to produce mRNA
    • mRNA is then translated into specific protein
      • Proteins synthesized have various functions
      • Examples: metabolic activities, structural purposes, or exported from cell
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11
Q

Control of hormone release

A
  • Hormone levels in the blood are controlled by negative feeback systems
    • Increased hormone effect on target organs can cause decreased hormone release.
    • Levels stay withing a narrow, desirable range
  • Endocrine glands stimulated to syntesise and release hormones in response to
    • Humoral Stimuli) Changling levels of ions and nutrients
      • ex) more Ca2+ in blood stimulates parathyroid hormone
    • Nural stimili) Nerve fibers stimulare hormone release
      • ex) sympathetic nervous system activating
    • Horomonal Stimuli) Hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones
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12
Q

Nervous System modulation

A
  • Nervous system can make adjuctments to hormone levels when needed
    • Can modify stimulation or inhibitionof endocrine glands
  • The nervous system can overide normal endocrine system functioning
    • EX) hypothalamus and sympathetic nervous system overide insulin to allow blood glucose levels to raise in “fight or Flight”
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13
Q

Terget Cell Specificty

A
  • Target cells must have specific receptors for the hormone to bind to
  • Target cell regulation depends on three facotrs
    • Blood levels of hormone
    • Relative number of receptors
    • Affinity of bining between recptor and hormone.
  • Ammount of hormone can influence the number of receptors for that hormone
    • Up-regulation) more target cells in response to low hormone levels
    • Down-regulation) target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels.
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14
Q

Hormones in the Blood

A
  • Hormones circulate in blood either free or bound
    • Steroids and Thyroid homone are attached to plasma membrnes
    • all others are free
  • Concentration of circulating hrormones relates
    • rate of release
    • speed of removal in the body
  • Hormones can be removed from the blood by
    • Degrading Enzymes, kindeys, or the liver
    • Half-life. Time required for hormone’s blood level to decrease in half. (half a minuite to a week)
  • Onset of Hormonse activities
    • hormones take diffrent times to activate a receptor
    • Duration of a response is usually limited
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15
Q

Interations of Hormones at Target Cells

A
  • Permissivensess) one hormone cannot exert its effct without another hormone present
    • Reproducive and thyroid hormone are nessecary for the timly development of reproductive structures.
  • Synergism) more than onre hormone produces the same effect on a target cell
    • causes amplification
    • ex) glucagon and epinephrine both cause liver to release glucose
  • Antoganism) One or more homrones apposed the action of another hormone
    • EX) Example: insulin, and glucagon: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, is antagonized by glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels.
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16
Q

The Hypothalamus and Pityitary Gland

A
  • Hypothalamus is connected to pituitary gland via a stalk called the indundibulum
    • Petuitary gland secretes at least 8 major hormones
  • Pituitary gland (hypophysis) seated in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is the size and shape of a pea
  • Two major pituitary gland lobes
    • Posterior Pituitary) Composed of a nueral tissue that secreted nuerohoromones
    • Anterior Pituitary) Consists of glandualr tissue.
17
Q

Posterior Pitutary (lobe)

A
  • Mantians nueral connection to hypothalamus via hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
    • Tract arises from neurons in paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in hypothalamus
    • Runs through infundibulum
  • Secrets the hormones
    • Oxytocin and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • Can store hormones
18
Q

Anterior Pituitary (Lobe)

A
  • Vascular conection between anterior lobe and hypothalamus
  • Hypophesal Portal system componants
    • Primary capillary plexus
    • Hypophesal Portal Veins
    • Secondary Capillary Plexus
    • Does not have a nerve system to stimulate, recihormones hormones from hypothalamus
19
Q

Oxytocin

A
  • Strong stimulant of uterine contractions during childbirth
    • also acts as a hormonal trigger for milk ejection
    • “Cuddle” hormone
    • both are positive feeback mchanisms
  • Released from hypothalamus and is stroed in posterior pituitary
20
Q

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) (Vasopressin)

A
  • ADH is released when osmoreceptors detect too much solute
    • targets kidney tubukes to absorb more water
    • Inhibited by alchol and other diuretics
  • Under certain conditions, such as sever blood loss, exceptionally large amount of ADH are released, causing vasoconstriction and raising blood pressure.
21
Q

Diabetes Inspidus

A
  • Defined by a huge uric output, ADH defficency due to damage to hypothalamus or posterior pituitary
    • Urine is large water content
    • person must stay well hydrated
22
Q

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)

A
  • Hypersecretion of ADH
    • retention of fluid, headache, disorentation
    • Managment required fluid restriction and blood sodium monitering
23
Q

Anterior Pituirary Hormones

A
  • All 6 are peptide hormones
  • All (except GH) activate cells via cAMP messaging
  • All (but two) are tropins that regulate secretion of other hormones
    • TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH
24
Q

Growth Hormone

A
  • Produced by Sommatotropic cells
  • Direct Actions on Meatabolism
    • Increases blood levels of fatty acids for use as fuel
    • Increases amino acid uptake for protein synthesis(increases protein synthesis)
    • Decreases rate of glucose uptake and metabolism
    • (conserving glucose, anti-insulin effect)
    • In liver, it encourages the glycogen breakdown and glucose release to blood (anti-insulin effect)
  • Indirect Actions on Growth)
    • Mediated growth with insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
    • GH triggers liver, skeletal muscle, and bone to produce IGF
    • IGF stimilates growth.
  • Regulation of Growth Hormone
    • Growth horomone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
      • Stimulated GR release, triggered by low blood GH/ glucose or high amino acid levels
    • Growth Hormone -Inhibibiting Hormone (GHIH)
      • Ihibits GR rlease due to increased GR or IGF
    • Ghrelin) hunger hormone that stimulated GH release.
25
Q

homeostatic Imbalances of Growth Horomone

A
  • Hypersecretion of GH is usually caused by anterior pituitary tumor
    • In children results in gigantism, Can reach heights of 8 feet (2.4m), but has relatively normal body proportions.
    • In adults results in acromegaly (=enlarged extremities), Overgrowth of hands, feet, and face
  • Hyposecretion of GH
    • In children results in pituitary dwarfism, May reach height of only 4 feet (1.2 m), have fairly normal body proportions
    • In adults usually causes no problems
26
Q

Thyroid-Stiumulating Hormone (TSH) (Thyrotropin)

A
  • produced by thyrtropic cells of anterior pituitary
  • Stimulates normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid
    • Release triggered by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
    • Inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones
27
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (Corticotripin)

A
  • Secretetd by corticotropic cells
  • ACTH stimulated adrenal cortex to release corticosterioids
  • Regulation of ACTH release
    • Triggered by hypothalamic corticptroponin-releasing hormone (CRH) in daily rhythm
    • Highest levels in the morning
28
Q

Gonadotropins

A
  • Both Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) are refered to as gonadotropins.
    • Secreted by gonadotropic cells of anterior pituitary
  • FSH) stimulated production of gametes
    • egg or sperm
  • LH promotes production of gonadal hormones (testosterone/ estrogen)
    • absent from prepubesent children
  • Regulation of Gonadotoppin release
    *
29
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A
  • Secreted by prolactin cells of anterior pituitary gland
  • Stimulates milk production in females
    • role not understood in males
  • Regulation of PRL primarily controlled by prolactin- inhibiting hormone (PIH), which is Dopamine
    • PIH prevents release of PRL until needed
    • decreasing levels lead to lactation
  • Increased Estrogen levels stimulate PRL
    • Reason behind breast swelling and tenderness just before the menstrual cycle (but PRL is so brief, the breast do not produce milk)
    • Blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy
30
Q

Hyperprolactinemia

A
  • Clinical signs include inappropriate lactation, lack of
    menses, infertility in females, and impotence in males
  • most common abnormality of anterior pituitary tumors.