Chapter 10

Question 1

Cognition

Answer 1

Mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating info.
can include complex thinking and other psychological/emotional processes

Question 2

Concepts

Answer 2

mental grouping of similar objects, events, states, ideas, people, etc.
can be represented and communicated by an image

Question 3

How do we learn/form concepts

Answer 3

We think we learn a concept by definitions
Often, we form concepts by developing prototypes: mental images of the best example of a concept
ex: drawing a triangle

Question 4

When prototypes fail us

Answer 4

When examples stretch our definitions (is a stool a chair?)
Boundary between concepts is fuzzy (judging blue-green colors or if tomato is a fruit)
Examples contradict prototype (penguin is a bird)

Question 5

Problem solving

Answer 5

thinking we do to answer a complex question or figure out how to resolve unfavorable situation
ex: trial and error, algorithm, heuristic, insight

Question 6

Trial and Error

Answer 6

Problem solving strategy
trying various possible solutions, if that fails trying others
ex: wander supermarket looking for applejuice

Question 7

Algorithm

Answer 7

Problem solving strategy
step by step strategy for solving a problem, methodically leading to a specific solution
ex: create methodical path to make sure you check every aisle

Question 8

Heuristic

Answer 8

Problem solving strategy
Short-cut, step-saving strategy or principle which generates a solution quickly (possibly in error)
ex: check only related aisles

Question 9

Insight

Answer 9

Problem solving strategy
A sudden realization/leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution

Question 10

Insight: the “aha” moment

Answer 10

“aha” and feel satisfaction when answer comes to us
participants monitored by fMRI and EEG
1. extra frontal lobe activity (trying to solve)
2. experience “aha” moment and state the answer
3. burst of activity in right temporal lobe

Question 11

Obstacles to effective problem solving

Answer 11

Confirmation bias
Fixation/mental set
Heuristics

Question 12

Heuristics as an obstacle to problem solving

Answer 12

help solve problems quickly but can lead to mistaken conclusions

Question 13

Confirmation bias

Answer 13

tendency to search for info. that confirms our current theory, disregarding contradictory evidence
tendency to ask even number, not something that would disprove

Question 14

Fixation

Answer 14

tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking; inability to see problem from new perspective
ex: fixation triangles only in 2D

Question 15

Mental set

Answer 15

tendency to approach problems using a mindset (procedures and methods) that have worked previously
ex: perhaps from past experiences we assume 2D arrangement

Question 16

Intuition

Answer 16

quick acting automatic source of ideas instead of careful reasoning

Question 17

Intuition errors

Answer 17

1. the availability heuristic
2. overconfidence
3. framing

Question 18

The availability heuristic

Answer 18

when we estimate the likelihood of an event based on how much its available as a mental reference
ex: thinking winning at a slot machine is likely because we vividly recall the times we’ve won before

Question 19

Why do we fear the wrong things?

Answer 19

availability heuristic misleads us about whether a plane or motorcycle is more dangerous plane crashes scare us more so they stand out in our memory
evolutionarily focus on things that scare us more

Question 20

The overconfidence error

Answer 20

Tendency to be more confident than correct
Overestimate accuracy of estimates, predictions, knowledge
ex: evolutionarily evolve

Question 21

Preventing the overconfidence error

Answer 21

say “i think” not “i know”
be open to feedback and correction
ask for other opinions, things not considered
keep track of when you are wrong

Question 22

Framing

Answer 22

focus, emphasis, or perspective that affects our judgement and decision
ex: condoms

Question 23

Selective attention

Answer 23

brain able to choose a focus/select what to notice

Question 24

Cocktail party effect

Answer 24

ability to focus on a conversation when other conversations are going on around us

Question 25

Selective inattention

Answer 25

what we are not focused on, what we do not notice
inattentional blindness, change/choice blindness

Question 26

Inattentional blindness

Answer 26

when attention is elsewhere we miss seeing what others think is obvious to see
even more susceptible when performing another task; also partially responsible for poor eyewitness testimony

Question 27

Change blindness

Answer 27

Magicians use it and refer to it as “slight of hand”; by diverting attention to dramatic act with one hand we fail to notice changes with the other hand
ex: card trick, shirt, background

Question 28

Choice blindness

Answer 28

Not only do not notice the change, they endorse selections (choices) that they did not make in the first place
mistakes change as choice
cognitive dissonence
ex: lady pictures

Question 29

Phonemes

Answer 29

language made of
the smallest unit of sound 9vowels and consonants)

Question 30

Morphemes

Answer 30

language made of
the units of meaning (words and meaningful parts of words such as suffixes; prefixes)

Question 31

Grammar

Answer 31

Rules for using words; semantics, definitions, connotations, and syntax

Question 32

Syntax

Answer 32

How order of words makes meaning

Question 33

How do we learn language?

Answer 33

on average acquire 10 new words a day between 2 and 18, children learn basic grammar of language before 2 +2

Question 34

0-4 months language

Answer 34

Receptive language: associating sounds with facial movement and recognize when sounds are broken into words
“in fantis” mom speaking

Question 35

4 months language

Answer 35

Productive language: babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures

Question 36

10 months language

Answer 36

babbling sounds like parents/households native language

Question 37

12 months language

Answer 37

one word stage: understands and beginning to say many nouns

Question 38

18-24 months language

Answer 38

Two-word/telegraphic/tweet speech: adding verbs and making sentences but missing words
“see bird!”

Question 39

24+ months/ 2 years language

Answer 39

speaking full sentences and understanding complex sentences

Question 40

Genes; learning acquisition

Answer 40

we seem to have an inborn (genetic) talent for acquiring language, though no particular kind of language

Question 41

Experience; learning acquisition

Answer 41

we seem to have a “statistical” pattern recognizing talent. Infants quickly recognize patterns in syllable frequency and sequence, preparing them to learn words/syntax later

Question 42

Critical periods in language development

Answer 42

beginning a language later makes it harder to learn pronunciation and grammar of second language
Important to begin appropriate language exposure/education early
Language might never develop if not begun by age 7

Question 43

Canalization

Answer 43

Language constrained by external factors

Question 44

Linguistic depravation

Answer 44

language deprivation syndrome

Question 45

The bilingual advantage

Answer 45

numerous brain connections and neural networks
able to suppress one language while learning another
ability tends to go along with other forms of executive control, such as resisting distraction and inhibiting impulses