Chapter 10 Flashcards
Cognition
Mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating info.
can include complex thinking and other psychological/emotional processes
Concepts
mental grouping of similar objects, events, states, ideas, people, etc.
can be represented and communicated by an image
How do we learn/form concepts
We think we learn a concept by definitions
Often, we form concepts by developing prototypes: mental images of the best example of a concept
ex: drawing a triangle
When prototypes fail us
When examples stretch our definitions (is a stool a chair?)
Boundary between concepts is fuzzy (judging blue-green colors or if tomato is a fruit)
Examples contradict prototype (penguin is a bird)
Problem solving
thinking we do to answer a complex question or figure out how to resolve unfavorable situation
ex: trial and error, algorithm, heuristic, insight
Trial and Error
Problem solving strategy
trying various possible solutions, if that fails trying others
ex: wander supermarket looking for applejuice
Algorithm
Problem solving strategy
step by step strategy for solving a problem, methodically leading to a specific solution
ex: create methodical path to make sure you check every aisle
Heuristic
Problem solving strategy
Short-cut, step-saving strategy or principle which generates a solution quickly (possibly in error)
ex: check only related aisles
Insight
Problem solving strategy
A sudden realization/leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution
Insight: the “aha” moment
“aha” and feel satisfaction when answer comes to us
participants monitored by fMRI and EEG
1. extra frontal lobe activity (trying to solve)
2. experience “aha” moment and state the answer
3. burst of activity in right temporal lobe
Obstacles to effective problem solving
Confirmation bias
Fixation/mental set
Heuristics
Heuristics as an obstacle to problem solving
help solve problems quickly but can lead to mistaken conclusions
Confirmation bias
tendency to search for info. that confirms our current theory, disregarding contradictory evidence
tendency to ask even number, not something that would disprove
Fixation
tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking; inability to see problem from new perspective
ex: fixation triangles only in 2D
Mental set
tendency to approach problems using a mindset (procedures and methods) that have worked previously
ex: perhaps from past experiences we assume 2D arrangement
Intuition
quick acting automatic source of ideas instead of careful reasoning
Intuition errors
- the availability heuristic
- overconfidence
- framing
The availability heuristic
when we estimate the likelihood of an event based on how much its available as a mental reference
ex: thinking winning at a slot machine is likely because we vividly recall the times we’ve won before
Why do we fear the wrong things?
availability heuristic misleads us about whether a plane or motorcycle is more dangerous plane crashes scare us more so they stand out in our memory
evolutionarily focus on things that scare us more
The overconfidence error
Tendency to be more confident than correct
Overestimate accuracy of estimates, predictions, knowledge
ex: evolutionarily evolve
Preventing the overconfidence error
say “i think” not “i know”
be open to feedback and correction
ask for other opinions, things not considered
keep track of when you are wrong
Framing
focus, emphasis, or perspective that affects our judgement and decision
ex: condoms
Selective attention
brain able to choose a focus/select what to notice
Cocktail party effect
ability to focus on a conversation when other conversations are going on around us
Selective inattention
what we are not focused on, what we do not notice
inattentional blindness, change/choice blindness
Inattentional blindness
when attention is elsewhere we miss seeing what others think is obvious to see
even more susceptible when performing another task; also partially responsible for poor eyewitness testimony
Change blindness
Magicians use it and refer to it as “slight of hand”; by diverting attention to dramatic act with one hand we fail to notice changes with the other hand
ex: card trick, shirt, background
Choice blindness
Not only do not notice the change, they endorse selections (choices) that they did not make in the first place
mistakes change as choice
cognitive dissonence
ex: lady pictures
Phonemes
language made of
the smallest unit of sound 9vowels and consonants)
Morphemes
language made of
the units of meaning (words and meaningful parts of words such as suffixes; prefixes)
Grammar
Rules for using words; semantics, definitions, connotations, and syntax
Syntax
How order of words makes meaning
How do we learn language?
on average acquire 10 new words a day between 2 and 18, children learn basic grammar of language before 2 +2
0-4 months language
Receptive language: associating sounds with facial movement and recognize when sounds are broken into words
“in fantis” mom speaking
4 months language
Productive language: babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures
10 months language
babbling sounds like parents/households native language
12 months language
one word stage: understands and beginning to say many nouns
18-24 months language
Two-word/telegraphic/tweet speech: adding verbs and making sentences but missing words
“see bird!”
24+ months/ 2 years language
speaking full sentences and understanding complex sentences
Genes; learning acquisition
we seem to have an inborn (genetic) talent for acquiring language, though no particular kind of language
Experience; learning acquisition
we seem to have a “statistical” pattern recognizing talent. Infants quickly recognize patterns in syllable frequency and sequence, preparing them to learn words/syntax later
Critical periods in language development
beginning a language later makes it harder to learn pronunciation and grammar of second language
Important to begin appropriate language exposure/education early
Language might never develop if not begun by age 7
Canalization
Language constrained by external factors
Linguistic depravation
language deprivation syndrome
The bilingual advantage
numerous brain connections and neural networks
able to suppress one language while learning another
ability tends to go along with other forms of executive control, such as resisting distraction and inhibiting impulses
