Chapter 1 - Introduction Flashcards
What is the oldest medical science? (around what year did it begin)
Anatomy - 1600BC by the egyptians
The word “anatomy” has ____ roots which directly translates to ____
Greek roots, “a cutting open”
Why is studying anatomy and physiology important?
Understanding normal physiology assists in recognizing when something abnormal occurs within the body
What is anatomy?
The study of internal and external structures of the body and the physical relationships among body parts
The word “physiology” has ____ roots
Greek
What is physiology?
Study of how living organisms perform their vital functions
What is medical terminology?
The use of prefixes, suffixes, word roots, and combining forms to construct anatomical, physiological, or medical terms
What is an eponym?
A commemorative name for a structure or clinical condition that was originally named after a person (real or mythical)
What is the book that serves as the international standard for anatomical vocabulary?
International Anatomical Terminology
Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated, both ____and_____
theoretically and practically
All specific ______are performed by specific_____
all specific FUNCTIONS are performed by specific STRUCTURES
Anatomy can be divided into ____anatomy, _____ anatomy, and sometimes ____anatomy
gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and sometimes surgical anatomy
What is another name for gross anatomy?
macroscopic anatomy
What is gross anatomy?
Involves the examination of relatively large structures usually visible with the naked eye
What are the 5 forms of gross anatomy?
- Surface anatomy
- Regional anatomy
- Systemic anatomy
- Developmental anatomy
- Clinical anatomy
What is surface anatomy?
Form of gross anatomy. The study of general form and superficial markings
What is regional anatomy?
Form of gross anatomy that focuses on anatomical organization of specific areas of the body such as head neck or trunk
What is systemic anatomy?
Form of gross anatomy. The study of the structure of organ systems
What is an organ system?
Group of organs that function together in a coordinated manner
What is developmental anatomy?
Form of gross anatomy. Describes the changes in form that occur between conception and physical maturity
When do the most extensive structural changes occur for humans?
During the first 2 months of development
What is embryology?
The study of the 1st 2 months of development
What is clinical anatomy?
form of gross anatomy. Includes many subspecialties important in clinical practice
What are 3 subspecialties of clinical anatomy?
Pathological anatomy, radiographic anatomy, surgical anatomy
What is microscopic anatomy?
Deals with structures which cannot be seen without magnification
How are the boundaries of microscopic anatomy established?
limits of the equipment used
Name the 3 kinds of microscopes beginning with the one with the least magnification
Dissecting microscope, light microscope, electron microscope
What are the 2 subdivisions of microscopic anatomy?
Histology and cytology
At what level of organization does microscopic anatomy switch to gross anatomy?
organ level
What is cytology?
The study of the internal structure of individual cells
What is cytology?
The study of the internal structure of individual cells
What are cells?
The simplest units of life
What is histology?
the examination/study of tissues
What are tissues?
Groups of specialized cells and cell products that work together to perform specific functions
Are there more specializations in anatomy or physiology? Why?
Physiology because functions are more complex and difficult to examine than structures
What are 4 specializations of physiology??
- Cell physiology
- Organ physiology
- Systemic physiology
- Pathological physiology
What is the cornerstone of human physiology?
CELL physiology
Cell physiology considers events at the ______ and _____ levels
chemical and molecular
What is an example of organ physiology?
cardiac physiology
What is an example of systemic physiology?
Cardiovascular physiology
What is pathological physiology?
Specialization in physiology. Study of the effects of diseases on organ or system functions
Modern medicine depends on an understanding of both _____physiology and _____physiology
normal and pathological physiology
What is the core of all scientific thought? (including medical diagnosis)
The scientific method
Why is it difficult to separate anatomy from physiology?
The structures of body parts are so closely related to their function. FUNCTION FOLLOWS FORM
Name the levels or organization from smallest to largest
chemical/molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
What is the cardiovascular system made up of?
the heart, blood, and blood vessels
Something that affects a SYSTEM will ultimately affect…?
each of the system’s components
Name the 11 organ systems in the human body
- Integumentary
- Reproductive
- Nervous
- Digestive
- Cardiovascular
- Respiratory
- Muscular
- Skeletal
- Endocrine
- Urinary
- Lymphatic
What are the major structures of the integumentary system?
Hair, skin, nails, sweat glands
What are the major structures of the skeletal system?
Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and bone marrow
What are the major structures of the muscular system?
skeletal muscles and associated tendons
What are the major structures of the nervous system?
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
What are the major structures of the endocrine system?
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas
What are the major structures of the lymphatic system?
spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils
What are the major structures of the respiratory system?
nasal cavities, bronchi, lungs, alveoli, larynx, trachea
What are the major structures of the digestive system?
teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, large/small intestine, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
What are the major structures of the urinary system?
kidneys, ureters, urethra, bladder
What is homeostasis?
refers to the existence of a stable internal environment
What is homeostasis?
refers to the existence of a stable internal environment
Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to….
illness or even death
What is the term for the adjustment of physiological systems to maintain homeostasis?
homeostatic regulation
What are the 2 general mechanisms involved in homeostatic regulation?
Autoregulation (intrinsic)
Extrinsic regulation
What is another name for autoregulation?
intrinsic regulation
What is autoregulation?
occurs when a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts its activities AUTOMATICALLY in response to an environmental change
Give an example of autoregulation.
When oxygen levels are low in a tissue, the cells release chemicals that dilate blood vessels to increase blood flow (thus providing more oxygen) to the region in need
What is extrinsic regulation?
results from the activities of the nervous or endocrine system
What are the 2 organ systems that control the activities of other systems simultaneously?
nervous and endocrine
Give an example of extrinsic regulation
During exercise, nervous system commands the heart to increase its rate to circulate blood faster
In general, the nervous system directs what kind of responses??
rapid, short term, and very specific responses
What does the endocrine system do?
releases chemical messengers called HORMONES which affect tissues and organs throughout the body
What is an example of homeostatic regulation dependent on the endocrine system?
long term regulation of blood volume/composition. growth and development
adjustment of organ systems during starvation
A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of 3 parts:
- Receptor
- Control center
- Effector
What is a receptor?
A sensor that is sensitive to a particular stimulus or environmental change
A control center is a _____ center
integration
What does a control center do?
Receives and processes the information from the receptor and sends out commands
An effector can be a _____ or _____
cell or organs
What does an effector do?
Responds to the command of the control center whose activities either OPPOSE or ENHANCE the stimulus
In the case of a thermostat system, what is the receptor, control center, and effector?
RECEPTOR - thermometer
CONTROL CENTER - thermostat
EFFECTOR - air conditioner
Negative feedback tends to minimize _______
change
A thermostat system uses what kind of feedback?
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK. effector opposes the original stimulus
Why is homeostatic regulation important to an organism?
Physiological systems can only function normally under carefully controlled conditions. Prevents changes in the body’s internal environment
What is the SET POINT?
desired value
MOST homeostatic regulatory mechanisms involve _____feedback
negative
the control of body temperature (also called _____) is an example of ____feedback
thermoregulation, negative feedback
What are the receptor(s), control center, and effector(s) involved in thermoregulation?
receptors = one in the skin, one within the hypothalamus
control center = hypothalamus (region in the brain)
effectors = muscle tissue in the walls of blood vessels, sweat glands
Explain what happens when our body temperature is too hot
muscle tissue relaxes and blood vessels dilate, increasing blood flow through vessels near the surface of the body. Sweat glands accelerate their secretion. Skin acts as a RADIATOR by losing heat to the environment. Evaporation of sweat speeds up the process
do homeostatic mechanisms usually pay attention to minor variations?
NO - they instead maintain a normal range rather than staying at a fixed value
What are 2 reasons that body temperature can vary from day to day?
- small fluctuations around the set point
- changes in the set point itself
Give an example of when our “set point” of a certain temperature would change?
When we’re asleep, our thermoregulatory set point is lower.
When we have a fever or are outside on a hot day, it is higher
Is the variability of set points greater within one individual or from one person to another?
one person to another
What does it mean to say that homeostatic regulatory processes are DYNAMIC
because the set points are constantly changing with a changing environment or activity level
Why is positive feedback so rare?
often produces responses that are too extreme
When are positive feedback loops encountered?
When a potentially dangerous process must be completed quickly before homeostasis can be restored
Give 2 examples of positive feedback in the human body
delivering a child
formation of a blood clot when there is a severe cut
When does a DISEASE happen?
When an infection, injury, or genetic abnormality have effects so severe that homeostatic mechanisms cannot fully compensate for them and the internal environment is pushed outside normal limits
What is a STATE OF EQUILIBIRUM
exists when opposing processes or forces are in balance
When does a STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM exist in the case of body temperature?
When the rate of heat loss = rate of heat production
When is the body said to be in a state of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM?
When the body continuously adapts to changing conditions by utilizing homeostatic systems
ALL organ systems work together to maintain ______
homeostasis
Any homeostatic adjustments made by one system have ____ and _____ effects on a variety of other systems
direct and indirect
Explain what happens to the body when homeostasis breaks down.
Organ systems function less efficiently or may even malfunction. Result is disease which could potentially lead to death
Why is positive feedback helpful in blood clotting but not in maintaining temperature?
Positive feedback is useful in processes which must be completed quickly, such as blood clotting. It tends to increase any departure from the desired condition. Positive feedback would cause a fever to spiral out of control. Negative feedback opposes any departure from the norm
Define equilibrium.
Dynamic state in which two opposing forces or processes are in balance
What is superficial anatomy?
Involves locating structures on or near the body surface
What is the standard anatomical reference for the human form?
anatomical position
Front view
anterior
back view
posterior
Describe the anatomical position
Hands at the sides with the palms facing forward, feet together
A person lying down in the ANATOMICAL position FACE UP is said to be ______
supine
A person lying down in the ANATOMICAL position FACE DOWN is said to be _____
prone
How many abdominopelvic quadrants are there for the purpose of CLINICIANS?
FOUR
Where do the lines of the abdominopelvic quadrants intersect?
umbilicus (naval)
For anatomists, how many ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS are there?
NINE
How many sectional planes are there?
THREE
What are the 3 planes?
Transverse (Axial)
Frontal (Coronal)
Sagittal (Lateral)
The frontal plane extends ______, dividing into the _____ and _____portions
vertically, anterior and posterior
The transverse plane divides the body ______ and divides the body into the ______and ______ portions
horizontally, superior and inferior portions
The sagittal plane extends _____, dividing the body into the _____and_____ portions
vertically, left and right
A cut that passes along the midline and divides the body into equal left and right halves is a ______ section
midsagittal (or median)
A cut parallel to the midsagittal line is called a ______ section
parasagittal
What is the purpose of anatomical terms?
To provide a standardized frame of reference for describing the human body
Synonym for anterior
ventral
Synonym for posterior
dorsal
Cranial
the head
Superior
Above
Caudal
the tail
Inferior
below
medial
towards the midsagittal plane/ the body’s longitudal axis
Proximal/distal
thigh/foot
Superficial
relatively close to the body surface
What are the 2 functions of body cavities?
Protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
What body cavity appears early in embryological development?
ventral body cavity
The abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities are separated by..?
diaphragm
What is the diaphragm?
a flat muscular sheet
The internal organs enclosed or partially enclosed by the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called…?
viscera
What lines the walls of the internal cavities and covers the surfaces of the enclosed viscera?
serous membrane
the portion of a serous membrane that covers a VISCERAL ORGAN is known as….?
VISCERAL LAYER
the opposing layer to the visceral layer that lines the inner surface of the body wall is called…?
parietal layer
What does the thoracic cavity contain?
lungs, heart, associated organs of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and lymphatic systems, inferior portions of the esophagus and thymus
The thoracic cavity is subdivided into the left and right______ separated by a mass of tissue called the ______
left and right pleural cavities, mediastinum
The serous membrane lining a pleural cavity is called a ___?
pleura
What is the small chamber that surrounds the heart?
pericardial cavity
The serous membrane associated with the heart is called the _____
pericardium
The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the ___ to the ____
diaphragm to the pelvis
The abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into a superior ____ and an inferior _____
superior abdominal cavity, inferior pelvic cavity
Identify the subdivisions of the ventral body cavity
pleural and pericardial cavities within the thoracic cavity, peritoneal, abdominal, and pelvic cavities within the abdominopelvic cavity
What is metabolism?
all chemical activity in the body
What divides the ventral body cavity?
The diaphragm
The peritoneal cavity is in the ____ cavity
abdominopelvic
The pericardium is a _____
serous membrane
Failure of homeostatic regulation in the body results in _______
disease
A plane through the body that passes PERPENDICULAR to the long axis of the body and divides the body into superior and inferior section is a ……
TRANSVERSE section
In which body cavity is the heart?
pericardial
In which body cavity is the small and large intestine?
peritoneal
In which body cavity are the lungs?
pleural
In which body cavity are the kidneys?
abdominal
The MEDIASTINUM is the region between….
The two pleural cavities (the lungs)
Define anatomy
The study of internal and external body structures and the physical relationships among body parts
Define physiology
The study of how organisms perform their vital functions
The subdivisions of the ventral body cavity are located within the ____?
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity
Between autoregulation and extrinsic regulation, which causes more extensive and potentially more effective adjustments in activities?
EXTRINSIC regulation
Describe the anatomical position
body erect, hands at sides with palms facing forward
Which sectional plane could divide the body so that the face remains intact?
frontal plane (coronal)
Increased blood sugar stimulates the release of a hormone from the pancreas that stimulates the liver to store blood sugar (positive or negative feedback)
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
A rise in estrogen during the menstrual cycle increases the number of progesterone receptors in the uterus (positive or negative feedback)
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
It is a warm day and you feel a little chilled. You find your body temp is 1.5 degrees celsius below normal. suggest possible reasons for this situation
- Body may be losing heat faster than its being produced (this however is more likely to happen on a cold day)
- Hormones may have caused a decrease in metabolic rate and your body is not producing heat as normal
- Infection has temporarily changed the “set point” of the body’s thermostat. This would seem the most likely
Serous membranes (do/do not) open to the atmosphere
DO NOT - mucous membranes do
What is the name of the serous membrane directly in contact with the lung?
visceral pleura
What is the name of the serous membrane NOT in direct contact with the lung?
parietal pleura
What is the name of the serous membrane directly in contact with the heart?
visceral pericardium
What is the name of the serous membrane NOT in contact with the heart
parietal pericardium
Serous membranes in the abdominopelvic cavity are called…..
peritoneum
