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Biology 112 > Chap. 27 Book > Flashcards

Chap. 27 Book Flashcards

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1
Q

What were the first organisms to inhabit earth?

A

Prokaryotes

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2
Q

Are most prokaryotes unicellular or multicellular?

A

Unicellular

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3
Q

What is the difference between the cell wall of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes have a cell wall which contains peptidoglycan

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4
Q

A polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short peptides. Why is this term important to know?

A

Peptidoglycan

…encloses the entire prokaryotic bacterium

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5
Q

Name the three most common shapes of prokaryotes

A

Cocci, bacilli, Spirilli

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6
Q

What is the purpose of the Gram stain?

A

To categorize bacterial species according to differences in wall composition

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7
Q

What type of cell wall do gram-positive bacteria have?

A

Simple walls

Large amounts of peptidoglycan

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8
Q

A bacteria is structurally complex and has an outer membrane that contains lipolysaccharides. A gram stain is done. What will the result be?

A

Gram-negative

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9
Q

Why are gram-negative bacteria more resistant than gram-positive species to bacteria?

A

outer membrane impedes entry of drugs

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10
Q

A dense and well-defined and sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein

A

capsule

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11
Q

The Streptococcus bacterium attaches to cells in the respiratory tract. How does it do this?

A

capsule

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12
Q

What advantages does a capsule give to a prokaryote?

A
  • adherence to substrate or individuals in a colony
  • protect against dehydration
  • shield from attacks by host
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13
Q

Certain bacteria develop resistant cells called _____ when they lack an essential nutrient

A

endospores

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14
Q

ENDOSPORE FORMATION
a. original bacteria cell produces a copy of its ___ and surrounds that copy with a tough multilayered structure = __________.

A

chromosome, endospore

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15
Q

What is the difference between fimbriae and pili? What is their common function?

A

Fimbriae are shorter and more numerous, connect two cells together

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16
Q

Fimbriae

a. hairlike appendages that attach cells to surfaces or e/o
b. appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer

A

a. hairlike appendages that attach cells to surfaces or e/o

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17
Q

Of the various structure that enable prokaryotes to move, the most common are what?

A

FLagella

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18
Q

What do structural and molecular comparisons indicate about the flagella of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes? Would they be analogous or homologous?

A

they arose independently, analogous

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19
Q

T/F all prokaryotes are capable of taxis

A

False (50% are)

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20
Q

How could such a complex structure like the flagellum evolve?

A

bacterial flagellum originated as simpler structures that were modified in a. stepwise fashion over time

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21
Q

The bacterial flagellum may have evolved as other proteins were added to an ancestral secretory system. What is this process an example of?

A

Exaptation

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22
Q

The process in which existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification

A

Exaptation

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23
Q

The cells of prokaryotes are ______ than those of eukaryotes in their internal structure and DNA arrangement

A

simpler

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24
Q

Unlike eukaryotes, what do prokaryotes lack?

A

nucleus

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25
Q

a region of cytoplasm that is not enclosed by a membrane

A

nucleoid

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26
Q

smaller rings of independently replicating DNA molecules

A

plasmids

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27
Q

What two places carry genes in a prokaryote?

A

nucleoid, plasmids

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28
Q

What is the process of reproduction for a prokaryote?

A

binary fission

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29
Q

3 Key Features of Prokaryote Biology

a. they are ____
b. they reproduce by __________
c. they have ______ generation times

A

small, binary fission, short

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30
Q

Concept Check: rapid _______, _______ and _______ promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes

A

reproduction, mutation, genetic recombination

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31
Q

What is evidence that prokaryotes are not “primitive” or “inferior” in an evolutionary sense?

A

they rapidly adapt to new conditions

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32
Q

the combining of DNA from two sources

A

genetic recombination

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33
Q

How does genetic recombination occur in prokaryotes?

A

transformation, transduction, conjugation

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34
Q

What brings together prokaryotic DNA from different cells? If the cells are of different species, what is the specific term for this?

A

genetic recombination (transformation, transduction, conjugation), horizontal gene transfer

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35
Q

The genotype and even phenotype of a prokaryotic cell is altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings

A

Transformation

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36
Q

A harmless strain of Streptococcus pneumonia can be transformed into pneumonia-causing cells if the cells are exposed to DNA from a pathogenic strain. What type of genetic recombination is here?

A

Transformation

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37
Q

Phages can carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another.

A

Transduction

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38
Q

An E. coli donor cell extends a pilus that attaches to a recipient cell.

A

Conjugation

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39
Q

DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells that are temporarily joined.

A

Conjugation

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40
Q

Why is the F factor important for conjugation-genetic recombination?

A

It consists of 25 genes
F plasmid-cells function as DNA donors
F- cells are DNA recipients
Chromosomal genes can be transferred during conjucation when the donor cell’s F factor is integrated into the chromosome

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41
Q

plasmids which carry resistance genes that code for enzymes that specifically destroy or hinder the effectiveness of antibiotics

A

R plasmids

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42
Q

CC 27.2
“Although rare on a per gene basis, new mutations can add considerable genetic variation to prokaryotic populations in each generation. Explain how this happens.”

A

“The large number of individuals in prokaryotic populations makes it likely that in each generation there will be many individuals that have new mutations at any particular gene, thereby adding considerable genetic diversity to the population.”

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43
Q

CC 27.2

“Distinguish between the three mechanisms of transferring DNA from one bacterial cell to another.”

A

a. Transformation - naked, foreign DNA from the environment is taken up by a bacterial cell
b. transduction - phages carry bacterial genes from one bacterial cell to another
c. conjugation - a bacterial cell directly transfers plasmid or chromosomal DNA to another cell via a temporary mating bridge

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44
Q

CC 27.2
“In a rapidly changing environment, which bacterial population would likely be more successful, one that includes individuals capable of conjugation or one that does not?”

A

Population with individuals capable of conjugation.
Some of its members could form recombinant cells whose new gene combinations might be advantageous in a novel environment

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45
Q

CC 27.2
“If a non-pathogenic bacterium were to acquire resistance to antibiotics, could this strain pose a health risk to people?”

A

Yes!
- genes for antibiotic resistance could be transferred (transformation, transduction, conjugation) from the nonpathogenic bacterium to a pathogenic bacterium

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46
Q

CC 27..2

“In general, how does DNA transfer among bacteria affect the spread of resistance genes?”

A

Transformation, transduction and conjugation tend to increase the spread of resistance genes

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47
Q

Which prokaryotes must use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it?

A

obligate aerobes

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48
Q

Prokaryotes that are poisoned by O2

A

obligate anaerobes

49
Q

Process by which some prokaryotes extract chemical energy

A

anaerobic respiration

50
Q

Prokaryotes that use 02 if present but can also carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration

A

Facultative anaerobes

51
Q

nitrogen fixation

A

some cyanobacteria and methanogens convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia

52
Q

A Cyanobacteria that converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia is using what process?

A

Nitrogen fixation

53
Q

What is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms?

A

nitrogen

54
Q

T/F prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in many forms, but less so than Eukaryotes.

A

False

55
Q

specialized cells that only carry out nitrogen fixation

A

heterocysts

56
Q

Intercellular connections allow heterocysts to do what?

A

transport fixed nitrogen to neighboring cells

receive carbohydrates

57
Q

Where does metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species often occur?

A

surface-coating colonies

biofilm

58
Q

What surface-coating colony causes the capsule or slime layer of a prokaryotic cell wall to form?

A

Biofilm

59
Q

CC 27.3

“Distinguish between the four major modes of nutrition.”

A

phototroph - energy from light
chemotroph - energy from chemicals
autotroph - carbon from CO2, HCO3-, etc.
heterotroph - carbon from organic nutrients

60
Q

CC 27.3
“A bacterium requires only the amino acid methionine as an organic nutrient and lives in lightless caves What mode of nutrition does it employ?”

A

Chemoheterotrophy (bacterium must rely on chemical sources of energy, not exposed to light, must be heterotroph if it requires a source of carbon other than CO2 or HCO3-).

61
Q

An aquatic and salt-loving prokaryote will employ what nutritional mode?

A

photoheterotroph

62
Q

What type of organisms require at least one organic nutrient to make other organic compounds?

A

heterotroph

63
Q

Organisms that only need CO2 or related compounds as a carbon source

A

autotroph

64
Q

Which nutritional modes are unique to prokaryotes?

A

photoheterotrophic, chemoautotrophic

65
Q

What does prokaryotic phylogeny show us?

A

genetic diversity in prokaryotes is immense

66
Q

Prokaryotes that are more closely related to eukaryotes now belong in what domain?

A

archaea

67
Q

Which domain of prokaryotes include “extremophiles”?

A

Archaea

68
Q

prokaryotic “lovers” of extreme conditions

A

extremophiles

69
Q

Orange and yellow colonies of prokaryotes grow in the hot water of Yellowstone National Park. What are they called (domain?)?

A

extreme thermophiles, Archaea

70
Q

Archaean prokaryotes which thrive in VERY hot environments

A

extreme thermophiles

71
Q

Archaean prokaryotes which thrive in highly saline environments

A

extreme halophiles

72
Q

Methanogens

A

archaea that release methane as a by-product of their unique ways of obtaining energy

73
Q
  • Archea that use CO2 to oxidize H2

- poisoned by O2 (anaerobe)

A

methanogens

74
Q

How have molecular systematics and metagenomics contributed to our understanding of the phylogeny and evolution of prokaryotes?

A
  • indicate that organisms once classified as bacteria are more closely related to eukaryotes and belong in a domain of their own = archaea
  • horizontal gene transfer is common and plays a role in the evolution of prokaryotes
  • shows the immense diversity of previously unknown prokaryotic species
  • metagenomic analysis may alter our understanding of phylogenetic analysis
75
Q

What important role do chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes play in the ecosystem?

A

decomposers

  • break down dead organisms
  • unlock supplies of C, N, etc.
76
Q

What function do autotrophic prokaryotes, like _____, play?

A

cyanobacteria, use CO2 to make organic compounds

  • pass up organic compounds in a food chain
  • increase availability of nutrients
77
Q

Prokaryotes “immobilize nutrients by using them to synthesize molecules the remain within their cells. What is the result?

A

Prokaryotes decrease the availability of key plant nutrients

78
Q

an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact with each other

A

symbiosis

79
Q

What is the larger organism in a symbiotic relationship called?

A

host

80
Q

The smaller figure in a symbiotic relationship

A

symbiont

81
Q

A prokaryote and its host typically participate in mutualism. Is this a positive event?

A

Yes

mutualism is an ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit

82
Q

Mutualism is an ecological interaction between _______

A

two species

83
Q

Commensalism: an ecological ____ in which one ____ benefits while the other is not ____ or _____ in any significant way

A

relationship, species, harmed, helped

84
Q

an ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents tissues, or body fluids of its host

A

parasitism

85
Q

What does a parasite do to its host?

A

eat the host’s cell contents, tissues, or body fluids

86
Q

“The glowing oval below the eye of the flashlight fish ins an organ harboring bioluminescent bacteria. The fish uses the light to attract prey and to signal potential mates. The bacteria receive nutrients from the fish. The bacteria receive nutrients from the fish.” This is an example of what?

A

Mutualism

87
Q

T/F As a group, parasites harm, but do not typically kill their host.

A

True

88
Q

If a parasite causes a disease, is it a predator?

A

No, it is a pathogen

89
Q

T/F Parasites that cause disease–pathogens–are all prokaryotic

A

False

90
Q

CC 27.5 Explain how prokaryotes, though small, can be giants in their collective impact on Earth and life.

A

Because of their large numbers and metabolic abilities:

  • decompose wastes
  • recycle chemicals
  • affects available concentration of nutrients for other plants
91
Q

T/F Prokaryotic pathogens represent the largest majority of prokaryotic species

A

False

92
Q

Many human intestinal prokaryotic species’ digest food that our own intestines cannot break down. What relationship do we have with such prokaryotes?

A

Mutualism (both species benefit)

93
Q

T/F all pathogenic prokaryotes known to date are bacteria

A

True

94
Q

Diarrheal disease and tuberculosis are examples of what type of prokaryote?

A

pathogenic prokaryotes (bacteria)

95
Q

How do pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause illness?

A

Producing poisons - exotoxins or endotoxins

96
Q

Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause illness by producing poison–endotoxins or exotoxins. Difference:

A

Exotoxins–proteins secreted by bacteria and other organisms

Endotoxins-lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria

97
Q

A pathogenic prokaryote produces a poison that is released when bacteria dies and the bacteria’s cell walls break down. What poison is this?

A

Endotoxin

98
Q

Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria

A

Endotoxin

99
Q

Cholera and botulism is an example of what poison-protein?

A

Exotoxin

100
Q

A bacteria is gram-negative. What poison is housed in its outer membrane?

A

Endotoxins

101
Q

Name one positive way to harness prokaryotes:

A

bioremediation

102
Q

Anaerobic bacteria and archaea decompose the organic matter in sewage —> landfill or fertilizer material. What is this an example of?

A

Bioremediation :)

103
Q

Name two reasons why prokaryotes are useful?

A

They have diverse forms of nutrition and metabolism

104
Q

CC 27.6

“Identify at least 2 ways that prokaryotes have affected you positively today.”

A

a. eating fermented foods
b. clean water from sewage treatment
c. medicines prod. by bacteria

105
Q

CC 27.6
“A pathogenic bacterium’s toxin causes symptoms that increase the bacterium’s chance of spreading from host to host. Does this information indicate whether the poison is an exotoxin or endotoxin?”

A

No. If the poison is secreted as an exotoxin, live bacteria could be transmitted to another person. But the same is true of the poison is an endotoxin–only in this case, transmitted live bacteria may be descendants of the (now-dead) bacteria that produced the poison.

106
Q

CC 27. 6

“How might a change in your diet affect the diversity of prokaryotic species that live in your digestive tract?”

A

“Because different prokaryotic species have different adaptations, a change in diet may alter which species can grow most rapidly, altering species abundance.”

107
Q

PARTS OF PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

a. _____: hairlike appendages that help cells to adhere to other cells or to a substrate
b. _____: sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that can help cell adherence/evasion
c. internal organization: no ___ or other ____-____organelles
d. _______: structures used by most motile bacteria for propulsion; taxis
e. ______ _____ found in nearly all prokaryotes; structure differs in gram-positive/negative bacteria
f. circular ______: often accompanied by smaller rings of ____ called _______
g. ____: appendage that facilitates conjugation

A

fimbriae, capsule, nucleus, membrane-bound, flagella, cell wall, chromosome, DNA, plasmids, pilus

108
Q

CR 27.2
Rapid ______, ______, and ________ can promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes.
- recombination of DNA from two different cells: ___, _____, ______-

A

reproduction, mutation, genetic recombination, transformation, transduction, conjugation

109
Q

CR 27.3
___________ is much higher in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes
T/F as a group, prokaryotes form all four modes of nutrition

Among prokaryotes, _________ require O2, _______ are poisoned by O2, _______ can survive with or without O@

A

nutritional diversity, True, obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative aerobes

110
Q

Unlike eukaryotes, prokaryotes can metabolize _____ in many forms. Some can convert _____ _______ to ____, a process called _____ ______

A

nitrogen, atmospheric nitrogen, ammonia, nitrogen fixation

111
Q

Metabolic cooperation occurs in surface-coating ____ that include different species

A

biofilms

112
Q

The two largest nutritional types of bacteria

A

proteobacteria, gram positive bacteria

113
Q

Some archaea, like ______ and ______, live in extreme environments

A

extreme thermophiles, extreme halophiles

114
Q

CR 27.5
“decomposition by ______ prokaryotes and the synthetic activities of _____ and nitrogen-fixing ____ contribute to the recycling of elements in ecosystems”

A

heterotrophic, autotrophic, prokaryotes

115
Q

Many prokaryotes have a ____ relationship with a host

A

symbiotic

116
Q

People depend on ____ prokaryotes.

A

mutualistic

117
Q

Pathogenic bacteria typically cause disease by releasing ____ or _____.

A

endotoxins, exotoxins

118
Q

What can spread genes associated with virulence to harmless species or strains?

A

horizontal gene transfer

Biology 112 (16 decks)

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