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Biology 112 > Chap. 26 - Book > Flashcards

Chap. 26 - Book Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a phylogeny?

A

Evolutionary history of a species OR group of species

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2
Q

A phylogeny is the ___ history of a ___ or a group of ___

A

evolutionary, species, species

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3
Q

How do biologists reconstruct and interpret phylogenies?

A

Systematics

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4
Q

What do phylogenies show?

A

Evolutionary relationships

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5
Q

Taxonomy is the study of how _____ are named and classified

A

organisms

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6
Q

What is the first part of a binomial?

A

name of the genus to which a species belongs

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7
Q

What is the second part of a binomial?

A

epithet - (species)

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8
Q

Name Linneaus’s classification orders:

A 
domains
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species
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9
Q

Does the Linnean system tell us about the evolutionary relationship between groups (amphibians, mammals, reptiles, etc.)?

A

No

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10
Q

Is the Linnean system based entirely on evolutionary relationships between organisms?

A

No, it is not (which is why a new system of classification is needed = cladistics)

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11
Q

Does a phylogenetic tree represent a hypothesis or certain evolutionary relationships?

A

a phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships

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12
Q

PHYLOGENETIC TREE

Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor

A

sister taxa

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13
Q

PHYLOGENETIC TREE

2 organisms that are each other’s most close relatives

A

sister taxa

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14
Q

What is the term for a lineage that diverges early in the history of a group and originates near the common ancestor of the group?

A

basal taxon

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15
Q

To be ______ means that a branch point within the tree presents the most recent common ancestor of ALL taxa in the tree

A

rooted

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16
Q

What is a polytomy?

A

a branch point from which more than two descendants emerge

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17
Q

What does a polytomy signify?

A

evolutionary relationship is not clear

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18
Q

Are phylogenetic trees to show phenotypic similarity? What are they to show?

A

No, patterns of descent

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19
Q

extant

A

living

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20
Q

the similarity in the number and arrangement of bones int he forelimbs of mammals is due to their descent form a common ancestor with the same bone structure. This is an example of what?

A

Morphological homology

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21
Q

analogous structures that arose independently

A

homoplasies

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22
Q

With respect to flight, a bat’s wing is ______, not _____ to a bird’s wing

A

analogous, homologous

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23
Q

T/F the more elements that are similar in two complex structures, the more likely it is that they evolved form a common ancestor

A

True

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24
Q

SYSTEMATICS

in cladistics, what is the primary criterion used to classify organisms?

A

Common ancestry

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25
Q

What is a clade?

A

an ancestral species and all of its descendants

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26
Q

When is a taxon equivalent to a clade?

A

When the taxon is monophyletic

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27
Q

Taxon

A

a taxonomic group of any rank (species, genus, etc.)

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28
Q

What is the difference between monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic?

A

monophyletic: an ancestral species and ALL its descendants
paraphyletic: an ancestral species and some, but NOT ALL of its descendants
polyphyletic: distantly related species but not a recent common ancestor

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29
Q

For mammals, a shared backbone is what type of character and why?

A

shared ancestral character, character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

30
Q

Hair is a character shared by all mammals but NOT found in their ancestors. What type of character is hair?

A

shared derived character

31
Q

a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

A

shared ancestral character

32
Q

an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade

A

shared derived character

33
Q

Is it a relative matter whether a character is considered ancestral or derived?

A

Yes

34
Q

outgroup: a ____ or group of ___ from an _____ lineage that is known to have diverged ___ the lineage that includes the species that we are studying (in-group)

A

species, species, evolutionary, before

35
Q

By comparing members of the in-group with each other and the outgroup, what can we determine?

A

which characters were derived at the various branch points of vertebrate evolution

36
Q

What principles states that systematists should first investigate the simplest explanation consistent with the facts?

A

maximum parsimony

37
Q

This approach identified the tree most likely to have produced a given set of DNA data, based on certain probability rules about how DNA sequences change over time.

A

maximum likelihood

38
Q

T/F Phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis about how the organisms int he tree are related to one another

A

True

39
Q

The most parsimonious tree of evolutionary relationships can be inaccurate. Why?

A

Perhaps all nucleotide substations are not equally likely.

40
Q

What can help us reconstruct phylogenies among groups of present-day organisms for which the fossil record is poor or lacking?

A

Molecular methods/systematics

41
Q

Name two types of homologous genes

A

orthologous genes, paralogous genes

42
Q

Although the cytochrome c genes in humans and dogs serve the same function, the gene’s sequence in humans has diverged from that in dogs in the time since these species last shared a common ancestor. This is an example of what?

A

Orthologous genes

43
Q

Can paralogous species diverge within a species?

A

Yes, because they are located in more than one copy in the genome

44
Q

What is the approach for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based not he observations that some genes and other regions of genomes appear toevolve at constant rates?

A

Molecular clock

45
Q

An assumption underlying the molecular clock:

a) the number of ______ substitutions in _____ genes is proportional to the time that has elapsed since the genes

A

nucleotide, orthologous

46
Q

In the past, phylogenies have shown that some prokaryotes differ as much from each other as they do from eukaryotes. What did this lead biologists to create?

A

A 3-domain system (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya)

47
Q

The domain which contains most of the currently known prokaryotes:

A

Bacteria

48
Q

Which domain consists of a diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that inhabit a wide variety of environments? What is the nickname for this domain?

A

Archaea, “extremophiles”

49
Q

T/F (correct it): the domain Eukarya consists of only multi-cellular organisms.

A

False. Eukarya includes all organisms that have cells containing true nuclei: single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms.

50
Q

Which two domains consist entirely of single-celled organisms?

A

Archaea

Bacteria

51
Q

80% of genes in prokaryotic genomes have moved between species at some point during the course of evolution. What is this an example of?

A

Horizontal gene transfer

52
Q

How does substantial movement of genes between organisms in the different domains occur?

A

Horizontal gene transfer

53
Q

Why should the base of a “tree of life” be portrayed as a tangled web?

A

Horizontal gene transfer

54
Q

What can a phylogenetic tree only represent?

A

patterns of descent

55
Q

Explain the difference between homology and analogy

A

Similarity due to shared ancestry vs. similarity due ot convergent evolution

56
Q

A monophyletic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants

A

clade

57
Q

How can clades be distinguishes?

A

their shared derived characters

58
Q

Some regions of _____ change at a rate consistent enough to serve as a molecular clock

A

DNA

59
Q

In a comparison of birds and mammals, the condition of having four limbs is a

a. shared ancestral character
b. shared derived character
c. character useful for distinguishing birds from mammals
d. an example of analogy vs. homology

A

a. shared ancestral character

60
Q

To apply parsimony to a phylogenetic tree’s construction,

a. Choose the tree that assumes all evolutionary changes are equally probable
b. choose the tree in which the branch points are based on as many shared derived characters as possible.
c. choose the tree that represents the few evolutionary changes in DNA seq. or morphology

A

c. choose the tree that represents the fewest evolutionary changes in DNA sequences or morphology

61
Q

Three living species X, Y, and Z share a common ancestor T, as do extinct species U and V. A grouping that consists of species T, X, Y, and Z (but not U or V) makes up:

a. monophyletic taxon
b. in-group, with species U as the outgroup
c. paraphyletic group
d. polyphyletic group

A

c. paraphyletic group

62
Q

If you were using cladistics to build a phylogenetic tree of cats, which of the following would be the best out-group?

a. wolf
b. domestic cat
c. lion
d. leopard

A

a. wolf

63
Q

Can branch lengths represent genetic change?

A

Yes! (remember problem: mice have more slowly evolved the homolog than the frog)

64
Q

How has molecular biology revolutionized the study of systematics?

A

Molecular data can help distinguish homologous organisms from analogous organisms, in regards to a character, etc. Statistical tools can show if two DNA sequences from distantly related organisms, although they share 25% of their bases, do so because they are homologous.

65
Q

What was the permian mass extinction likely caused by? (defines the barrier between the Mesozoic and Paleozoic)?

A

an extreme episode of volcanism (rise in CO2 levels, etc.)

66
Q

What are mass extinctions caused by?

a. continental drift
b. climate change
c. allopatric speciation
d. destroyed habitat
e. unfavorable environment change
f. an origin of an unrelated species

A

continental drift, climate change, destroyed habitat, unfavorable environment change, origin of unrelated species

67
Q

How is continental drift implicated in the biogeography that we see today?

A
  • promotes allopatric speciation
  • organisms become extinct
  • explains strange fossil patterns (same species-did. land)
  • current distribution of organisms
68
Q

Fossils of the same species of Permian freshwater reptiles have been discovered in both Brazila nd the West African country of Ghana. What may this be caused by? Specifically?

A

Continental drift, Pangea breaking apart

69
Q

Why Australian fauna and flora contrast so sharply with those of the rest of the world?

A

Continental drift (Australia was set “afloat)

70
Q

Know the names of the four geologic eras in earth’s history, the time span of each, and the notable events that define them

A

Phanerozoic - origin of humans, dinosaurs, gymnosperms
Proterozoic - oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells appear
Archaean - concentration of atmospheric oxygen increases, prokaryotes appear (fossils)
Hadean - origin of earth

71
Q

heritable traits that can be compared across organisms, such as physical characteristics (morphology), genetic sequences, and behavioral traits.

A

Characters

Biology 112 (16 decks)

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