CH2 Flashcards
a coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data
theory
possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research.
hypotheses
this model views human development as a series of predictable responses to
stimuli.
mechanistic model
what does the mechanistic model say about people?
people are like machines that react to environmental input
this model views human development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages.
organismic model
in the context of college students drinking too much alcohol, what does the mechanistic researcher look for?
a mechanistic theorist might look for environmental influences, such as advertising and whether the student’s friends are heavy drinkers.
in the context of college students drinking too much alcohol, what does the organismic researcher look for?
an organismic researcher looks at what kinds of situations they choose to participate in, and with whom.
this term refers to changes in number or amount, such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of communication.
quantitative change
this term refers to discontinuous changes in kind, structure, or organization
qualitative change
what are the five theoretical perspectives?
psychoanalytic
learning
cognitive
contextual
sociobiological/evolutionary
this perspective is a view of human development as shapedby unconscious forces that motivate human behavior
psychoanalytic perspective
in Freudian theory, this refers to an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals
psychosexual development
name Freud’s five stages of
development and three parts
of the personality?
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
ed, igo, superego
in Erikson’s eight-stage theory, this term refers to the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, orself
psychosocial development
Tell two ways that Erikson’s theory differs from Freud’s?
erikson’s theory saw development as a lifelong process while freud just stopped at adolescence
this view of human development holds that changes in behavior result from experience or from adaptation to the environment.
learning perspective
this is a mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior as
a predictable response to experience
behaviorism
what are the two kinds of associative learning?
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
this term refers to learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response
classical conditioning
this term refers to learning based on an association of behavior with its consequences
operant conditioning
this term refers to the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
reinforcement
this term refers to the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of
repetition
punishment
this theory says that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models.
Also called social cognitive theory
social learning theory
Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that affect development
the person acts on the world as the world acts on the person
reciprocal determinism
this term refers to learning through watching the behavior of others
observational learning
this term refers to the sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals
self-efficacy
this term refers to Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations
cognitive-stage theory
Piaget’s term for the creation of
categories or systems of knowledge
organization
Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations
schemes
Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of what they already know
term for adjustment to new
information about the environment, achieved through processes of assimilation and accommodation
adaptation
Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure
assimilation
Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information
accommodation
Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek astable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation
equilibration
List three interrelated principles
that bring about cognitive growth, according to Piaget, and give an example ofeach?
organization - A newborn infant has a simple scheme for sucking ut soon develops varied schemes for how to suck at the reast, a ottle, or a thumb
adaptation - when a child looks at a plane for the first time, they label it as a bird but then learn what the differences are between a plane and a bird then experience a state of disequilibrium
equilibrium - the child is then motivated to change their understanding to closely reflect their observation which inspires accommodation and through that, they are at equilibrium now
this term refers to Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development
described cognitive growth as a collaborative process
sociocultural theory
this term refers to the gap between
what they are already able to do by themselves and what they can accomplish with assistance
zone of proximal development
this term refers to temporary support to help a child master a task
scaffolding
Explain how Vygotsky’s theory
differs from Piaget’s and how it
applies to educational teaching
and testing?
Vygotsky’s theory differs by its emphasis on social interaction and the supportive assistance of scaffolding, there was no mention of social interaction in piaget’s theory.
vygotsky’s theory would be applied by helping children with tests by giving them hints that would focus on their potential learning
this approach seeks to explain cognitive development by analyzing the processes involved in making sense of incoming information and performing tasks effectively: such processes as attention, memory, planning strategies, decision-making, and goal-setting
information-processing approach
Describe what information processing researchers do, and tell three ways in which such research can be applied?
these types of researchers look at the brain as a computer and wonder why the same inputs would lead to different outputs.
their research can be applied to predict an infant’s later intelligence and test, diagnose, and treat learning problems
this view of human development sees
the individual as inseparable from the
social context
contextual perspective
What does development look like from a contextual perspective?
development can be understood only in its social context.
Contextualists see the individual, not as a separate entity interacting with the
environment, but as an inseparable part of it
this term refers to Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development that identifies five levels of environmental influence
bioecological theory
this theory is generally represented as a set of rings with the developing child in the middle
bioecological theory
what are the five levels of environmental influence on an individual in the bioecological theory? explain each
microsystem - f2f interactions with siblings parents friends and classmates
mesosystem - the interlocking influence of microsystems (PTA meetings). The child does not directly participate but still influences her
exosystem - consists of interactions between a microsystem and an outside institution (government policies can affect a child everyday experiences)
macrosystem - consists of overarching cultural patterns (raised in an open democratic society vs authoritarian with limited freedoms)
chronosystem - represents the dimension of time (changes in family composition or place of residence etc)
State the chief assumptions of
the contextual perspective?
The child is not seen as just an outcome of development; the child is an active shaper of development
this view of development focuses on evolutionary and biological
bases of behavior
evolutionary/sociobiological perspective
who proposed the evolutionary/sociobiological perspective?
E. O Wilson
this term refers to the study of the adaptive behaviors of animal species in natural contexts
ethology
what is the assumption of ethology?
The assumption is that such behaviors like tiger stripes or mating dances are evolved through natural selection
this term refers to the application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior
evolutionary psychology
what are the psychological products of natural selection in humans known as?
cognitive adaptations
Identify the chief focus of the
evolutionary/sociobiological
perspective and explain how
Darwin’s theory of evolution
underlies this perspective
Tell me what kinds of topics ethologists and evolutionary psychologists study?
open-ended but personally, maybe how the natural environment affects the human mind?
this type of research deals with objectively measurable data
quantitative research
this term refers to the system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings
scientific method
this type of research focuses on non-numerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs
qualitative research
this term refers to the group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study
sample
this term refers to the selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen
random selection
Compare quantitative and
qualitative research and give
an example of each?
quantitative is more on numbers while qualitative is more on non numerical data like feelings or beliefs
quantitative - correlation of nicotine intake and academic performance
qualitative - the difference of coping mechanisms with atheists vs religious people
Summarize the six steps in the
scientific method and tell why
each is important? (SO TRUE)
identification of problem
formulation of hypotheses
collection of data
data analysis
conclusion
dissemination of findings
Explain the purpose of random
selection and tell how it can be
achieved?
A random sample, especially a large one, is likely to represent the population well.
one way to achieve random selection is to put the names of all my students in a bowl, stir it then pull out their names up until a certain number
what are the types of self-reports?
diary, visual reports, interviews, and questionnaire
Which interview techniquedo you think
would yield more reliable results—structured or open-ended?
structured
in this method of data collection, people are observed in their normal setting, with no attempt to manipulate behavior.
naturalistic observation
in this method of data collection, participants are tested on abilities, skills, knowledge, competencies, or physical responses
behavioral and performance measures
this term refers to the study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities
cognitive neuroscience
what are the four basic research designs used in developmental research?
case studies, ethnographic studies, correlational studies, and experiment
what does an ethnographic study seek to do?
An ethnographic study seeks to describe the pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions that make up a society’s way of life
this term refers to the form of naturalistic observation in which researchers live or participate in societies or smaller groups they observe, as anthropologists often do for long periods of time
participant observation
this term refers to a definition stated solely in terms of the operations used to measure a phenomenon
operational definition
what does a correlational study seek to do?
A correlational study seeks to determine whether a correlation or statistical relationship, exists between variables, phenomena that change or
vary among people or can be varied for purposes of research
this term refers to the rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other
experiment
this term refers to the assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group
random assignment
Explain why only a controlled
experiment can establish
causal relationships?
open-ended no need to list down whole answer
Distinguish among laboratory,
field, and natural experiments
and tell what kinds of research
seem most suitable to each?
OPEN ENDED
Compare the advantages and
disadvantages of various forms
of data collection?
look at the tables
this study is designed to assess age changes in a sample over time
longitudinal study
this type of study is designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion
cross-sectional study
this type of study combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques
sequential study
what are the three principles of researchers in resolving ethical dilemmas?
beneficence
respect for participants’ autonomy and protection of those who are unable to exercise their own judgment
justice
List all ethical issues affecting rights of research participants
informed consent,
avoidance of deception,
protection from harm
and loss of dignity and self-esteem,
and guarantees of privacy and confidentiality.
