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BIOL 223 Lecture > CH 13 - The Brain and Cranial Nerves > Flashcards

CH 13 - The Brain and Cranial Nerves Flashcards

1
Q

Name the 4 major regions of the adult brain.

A

Cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum

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2
Q

Describe the ventricles of the brain.

A

Lined with ependymal cells

Hollow chambers filled with CSF

Continuous with each other and with the central canal of the spinal cord

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3
Q

What structures protect the brain?

A

Skull bones, cranial meninges, CSF, blood-brain barrier

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4
Q

Name the layers from the scalp to the brain from most superficial to deep.

A 
Scalp
Periosteum
Skull bone
Periosteal layer (dura mater)
Meningeal layer (dura mater)
Subdural space
Arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space
Pia mater
Brain
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5
Q

Dura mater “tough mother”

A

Strongest and most superficial meninx

Made of dense collagenous CT

Outer periosteal layer- fused to periosteum of skull bones
Inner meningeal layer- continuous inferiorly to form the spinal dura mater

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6
Q

Dural venous sinuses

A

The 2 layers of the dura mater are separated

Forms an interconnected series of chambers (superior/inferior sagittal sinus) that collect venous blood from the brain that drains into the internal jugular vein of the neck

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7
Q

Dural folds

A

Meningeal layers extend inward to form flat partitions that subdivide the cranial cavity

Provides additional stabilization and support to the brain by limiting excessive movement of the brain within the cranium

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8
Q

Name the 3 dural folds and their locations.

A

Falx cerebri- separates the two cerebral hemispheres

Falx cerebelli- separates the cerebellar hemispheres

Tentorium cerebelli- separates the cerebrum and cerebellum

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9
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

Consists of arachnoid membrane and arachnoid trabeculae (fibers that secure arachnoid mater to pia mater)

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10
Q

Arachnoid villus

A

Knob-like projection of the arachnoid mater that protrudes into the inner meningeal layer of the dura mater and extend into the superior sagittal sinus

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11
Q

Arachnoid granulation

A

Clusters of arachnoid villi

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12
Q

Subdural space (potential space)

A

A thin layer of fluid that separates the dura mater and the arachnoid mater

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13
Q

Subarachnoid space

A

The space beneath the arachnoid membrane that contains arachnoid trabeculae

Filled with CSF and blood vessels

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14
Q

Pia mater “delicate mother”

A

Highly vascularized delicate connective tissue that adheres directly to the brain via astrocytes

Follows every fold and groove of the brain

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15
Q

Hemorrhage

A

Bleeding due to a ruptured, damaged, leaky blood vessel

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16
Q

Hematoma

A

Blood that pools or collects outside of a blood vessel due to trauma, injury, or ruptured blood vessels

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17
Q

Epidural hematoma

A

Blood pools between the skull bones and the dura mater

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18
Q

Subdural hematoma

A

Blood pools in the subdural space

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19
Q

Intracerebral hematoma

A

Blood pools anywhere in the cerebrum

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20
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Clear fluid produced by the choroid plexus, found in the ventricles, that completely surrounds the CNS (brain and spinal cord)

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21
Q

What are the functions of CSF?

A

Mechanical protection:

  • liquid cushion of the CNS
  • shock absorption
  • reduces brain weight by 97% from buoyancy

Transports chemical messengers, nutrients, and waste

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22
Q

Choroid plexus

A

Site of CSF production (500ml/day; 150ml replaced every 8 hours)

Consists of ependymal cells joined by tight junctions, permeable blood capillaries, and fenestrations (gaps between capillaries)

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23
Q

Describe the blood-CSF barrier.

A

Formed by ependymal cells

Surrounds blood capillaries of the choroid plexus

Limits movement of transferred compounds and allows the chemical composition of blood and CSF to differ

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24
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

The buildup of CSF in the ventricles

Extra CSF increases the size of the ventricles and puts pressure on the brain

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25
Q

How/where does CSF circulate?

A

Circulates from choroid plexus through ventricles and into central canal of spinal cord

Constant motion is aided by ependymal cell cilia in the ventricles

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26
Q

Describe the circulation process of CSF.

A

Lateral ventricle’s choroid plexus produces CSF and adds it to the lateral ventricles, flows through interventricular foramina to

Third ventricle’s choroid plexus produces CSF and adds it to the third ventricle, flows through cerebral aqueduct to

Fourth ventricle’s choroid plexus produces CSF and adds it to the fourth ventricle, flows through lateral and median apertures to

Subarachnoid space, then flows to arachnoid granulations of the superior sagittal sinus, then flows through venous blood in internal jugular veins to heart and lungs, then flows through arterial blood in internal carotid arteries and back to the choroid plexuses of the ventricles

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27
Q

Internal carotid arteries

A

Blood flow to the brain

Supplies nutrients and oxygen to the brain

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28
Q

Internal jugular veins

A

Blood flow out of the brain

Removes wastes and carbon dioxide from the brain

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29
Q

Cerebrovascular diesases

A

Disorders that interfere with blood circulation to or within the brain

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30
Q

Describe the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

A

Formed by tight junctions between ependymal cells that isolates CNS neural tissue from general circulation

Astrocytes selectively allow substances to cross after releasing chemicals that control endothelium permeability

*Lipid-soluble compounds, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids will bypass the BBB

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31
Q

Describe the cerebrum.

A

Largest part of the brain, split into two (left and right) cerebral hemispheres

Contains sensory, motor, and association areas

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32
Q

Name the 3 basic regions of the cerebrum.

A

Cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei

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33
Q

Gyrus

A

Series of elevated ridges found on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres that increase the surface area

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34
Q

Sulcus

A

Shallow grooves that separate the gyri

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35
Q

Fissures

A

Deeper grooves that separate large regions of the brain

Longitudinal fissure- separates left and right cerebral hemispheres
Transverse fissure- separates the cerebrum and cerebellum
Lateral fissure- separates frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe

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36
Q

Describe the cerebral cortex and its hemispheres.

A

Surface layer of the cerebrum (grey matter) that controls higher mental functions (executive suite; our conscious mind)

Each cerebral hemisphere receives info from and sends commands to the opposite side of the body (contralateral)

Cerebral hemispheres have alike structures, but different functions (functions are not exactly specific to the region)

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37
Q

Name the 4* lobes of the cerebral cortex.

A

Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe

*Insula is sometimes considered a fifth lobe

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38
Q

What are the 4 kinds of functional areas found in the cerebral cortex?

A

Motor areas, sensory areas, association areas, integrative centers

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39
Q

What do motor areas do?

A

Control voluntary movement

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40
Q

Name the motor areas of the cerebral cortex.

A

Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus)
Premotor cortex
Frontal eye field
Broca’s area (motor speech area)

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41
Q

Describe the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus).

A

Contains pyramidal cells that allow for control of precise voluntary movement of skeletal muscle

*Long axons of pyramidal cells project to spinal cord, forming voluntary motor tracts called corticospinal tracts

Entire body is controlled spatially and contralaterally

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42
Q

Describe the premotor cortex.

A

A memory bank for skilled motor activities

Coordinates learned movements

Coordinates the movement of several muscle groups simultaneously or sequentially by sending impulses to the primary motor cortex

Plans movements by using sensory information

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43
Q

Describe the frontal eye field.

A

Controls voluntary eye movements

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44
Q

Describe broca’s area (motor speech area).

A

Special motor speech area that directs the muscles involved in speech production and regulates the patterns of breathing and vocalization needed for normal speech

Motor commands are adjusted by feedback from the auditory association area

Present in one cerebral hemisphere (usually left) and becomes active as we think and prepare to speak

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45
Q

What do sensory areas do?

A

Involved in the conscious awareness of sensation and other sensory information

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46
Q

Name the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.

A 
Primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)
Somatic sensory association area
Visual areas
-Primary visual cortex
-Visual association area
-Facial recognition area
Auditory areas
-Primary auditory cortex
-Auditory association area
Olfactory areas
-Primary olfactory cortex
-Olfactory association area
Gustatory cortex
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47
Q

Describe the primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus).

A

Receives information from somatic sensory neuron receptors and proprioceptors

Once info is received, the neurons identify the body region being stimulated (spatial discrimination)

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48
Q

Describe the somatic sensory association area.

A

Monitors and integrates sensory input from the primary sensory cortex to produce an understanding of an object being felt

Stores memories of past sensory experiences

49
Q

Describe the primary visual cortex.

A

Receives visual info from the retina of the eye

Involved in visual perception, or a sense of vision

50
Q

Describe the visual association area.

A

Receives sensory impulses from the primary visual cortex and thalamus and interprets the results

Uses past/present visual experiences to interpret new stimuli

51
Q

Describe the facial recognition area.

A

Receives impulses from visual association area

Stores info about faces and recognition of a person by their face

52
Q

Describe the primary auditory cortex.

A

Receives auditory information from the inner ear and interprets pitch, loudness, and location

53
Q

Describe the auditory association area.

A

Monitors and receives impulses from the primary auditory cortex

Involved in the perception and understanding of sounds

Stores memories of sounds heard in the past

54
Q

Describe the primary olfactory cortex.

A

Receives impulses from sensory neuron smell receptors located in the superior nasal cavities that send impulses via the olfactory tract

55
Q

Describe the olfactory association area.

A

Receives sensory impulses from the primary olfactory cortex, giving us conscious awareness of and the ability to differentiate between smells

56
Q

Describe the gustatory cortex.

A

Receives info from sensory neuron taste receptors located in the tongue and pharynx

57
Q

What do the association areas do?

A

Monitor and interpret information that arrives at the primary sensory areas of the cortex

58
Q

Name the association areas of the cerebral cortex.

A

Premotor cortex
Sensory association areas- somatic sensory association area, visual association area, olfactory association area, auditory association area

59
Q

What do the integrative centers do?

A

Receive info from many association areas

Direct extremely complex motor activities and perform complicated analytical functions

60
Q

Name the integrative centers of the cerebral cortex.

A

Prefrontal cortex

Wernicke’s area

61
Q

Describe the prefrontal cortex.

A

Most complicated cortical region

Integrates info from sensory association areas and performs abstract intellectual functions

Involved with intellect, complex learning abilities (cognition), recall, personality, abstract ideas, judgement, reasoning, persistence, planning, empathy, conscience, and mood

Closely linked with limbic system

62
Q

Describe wernicke’s area

A

Interprets the meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words

Active during translation of words into thoughts

Works with broca’s area to contribute to verbal communication by adding emotional content

63
Q

Hemispheric lateralization

A

Regional specialization of cortical functioning

Left and right cerebral hemispheres have different jobs

*The cerebral hemisphere that controls language is called the dominant hemisphere

64
Q

What is the difference in white matter and grey mater?

A

White matter is mostly myelinated axons with some unmyelinated axons

Grey matter is neuron cell bodies and short unmyelinated neurons

65
Q

What does white matter do?

A

Responsible for communication between cerebral areas, between cerebral hemispheres, and between cerebrum and spinal cord

66
Q

Ascending tracts

A

Bundles of myelinated axons that enter the cerebral hemispheres from a lower area and travel upwards

Carry sensory input

67
Q

Descending tracts

A

Bundles of myelinated axons that enter the cerebral hemispheres from a higher area and travel downwards

Carry motor output

68
Q

Association fibers

A

Connections within the same hemisphere

69
Q

Arcuate fibers

A

Short association fibers that connect one gyrus to another

70
Q

Longitudinal fasciculi

A

Longer association fibers that connect one lobe to another

71
Q

Commissural fibers

A

Bands of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

*Corpus callosum, anterior commissure, and posterior commissure

72
Q

Projection fibers

A

Connect cerebrum with lower areas

*Diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, spinal cord

73
Q

Internal capsule

A

Collection of projection fibers

A thick band of white matter that contains all ascending and descending fibers

74
Q

Corona radiata

A

Internal capsule fibers that radiate outward through cerebral white matter to the cerebral cortex

75
Q

Describe basal nuclei.

A

Nuclei deep within the cerebral white matter, or “islands of grey matter in an ocean of white matter”

Involved with the subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination of learned movement patterns and rhythm

Consists of: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus

76
Q

Lentiform nucleus

A

Name used when referring to both the putamen and globus pallidus basal nuclei

77
Q

Corpus striatum

A

Name used when referring to all three basal nuclei (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus)

78
Q

Substantia nigra

A

A midbrain structure that releases dopamine to inhibit the basal nuclei

Without this, the basal nuclei would become more active, gradually increasing muscle tone and uncoordinated movements

79
Q

Name the structures of the diencephalon.

A

Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus

80
Q

Pineal gland

A

Structure found in the epithalamus that secretes the hormone melatonin

81
Q

Describe the thalamus.

A

The gateway to the cerebral cortex

Left and right thalami held together by the intermediate mass (a flat grey band of tissue)

Coordinates activities of basal nuclei and cerebral cortex by relaying info between them

Afferent impulses from all senses except smell and all body parts converge on the thalamus and synapse with at least one of its thalamic nuclei, is integrated and relayed to a specific association area of the cerebral cortex

All other inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex first go through thalamus

82
Q

What is the hypothalamus, as part of the diencephalon?

A

ANS control center and overall body homeostasis regulator

83
Q

What are the 6 functions of the hypothalamus?

A

Control ANS

  • Adjust/coordinate ANS activities to regulate heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, urinary/digestive functions
  • Axons extend from hypothalamus to parasympathetic/sympathetic nuclei in brain stem/spinal cord

Produce hormones

  • Produces several hormones
  • Connection with pituitary gland

Regulate emotions/behavior
-Part of limbic system

Regulate eating/drinking
-Feeding/satiety/thirst centers

Control body temperature
-Contains temperature regulating center

Regulates circadian rhythm/state of consciousness
-Regulates melanin secretion of pineal gland

84
Q

What does the limbic system control?

A

Emotions

Also links feelings and thoughts

85
Q

Name the main components of the limbic system.

A

Amygdala, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, hypothalamus

86
Q

Describe the amygdala.

A

Made of left and right amygdalae

Plays a central role in our emotional responses and in forming new memories related to fear

Attaches emotional content to our memories

87
Q

Describe the cingulate gyrus.

A

Helps regulate emotions and pain

Involved in predicting and avoiding negative consequences

88
Q

Describe the hippocampus.

A

Left and right parts

Important in learning and storage/retrieval of new long-term memories

Memory center of the brain, especially memories of a specific date/place or associated with various senses

New neurons are made from adult stem cells (neurogenesis)

89
Q

Describe the hypothalamus as part of the limbic system.

A

Main ANS control center and part of emotional response

Chronic emotional upset can lead to physical ailments (psychosomatic illnesses)

Participates in expressions of rage, aggression, pain, pleasure, and sexual arousal behaviors

90
Q

Fornix

A

A tract of white matter that connects the hippocampus to the hypothalamus

91
Q

Describe the brain stem.

A

Provides pathways for tracts running between higher and lower brain centers

Produces programmed, automatic behaviors (visceral reflexes) necessary for survival

Brain stem nuclei associated with cranial nerves 3-12

92
Q

Centers

A

Clusters of nuclei (grey matter)

93
Q

Name the structures of the brainstem.

A

Midbrain (mesencephalon), pons, medulla oblongata

94
Q

Describe the midbrain (mesencephalon).

A

Regulates auditory/visual reflexes and controls alertness

Ventral side- 2 Cerebral peduncles (tracts)
Dorsal side- corpora quadrigemina

Connects primary motor cortex and somatic motor neurons of spinal cord via corticospinal motor tracts

Connects to cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle

95
Q

Describe the corpora quadrigemina.

A

Sensory nuclei (grey matter)

Consists of superior/inferior colliculi

96
Q

Describe the superior colliculi.

A

Receives visual inputs from retina and responds

Visual reflex centers: control the reflex movement of the eyes/head/neck in response to visual/auditory stimuli coming from inferior colliculi

97
Q

Describe the inferior colliculi.

A

Part of the auditory relay (hearing receptors in ear, inferior colliculi, thalamus, primary auditory cortex)

Auditory reflex centers: initiate reflex responses to auditory stimuli and communicates to superior colliculi

98
Q

Describe the pons.

A

Contains pons nuclei (grey matter), ascending/descending tracts, and transverse fibers

Linked to the cerebellum by the middle cerebellar peduncle

99
Q

Pontine respiratory group

A

Nuclei involved with respiration

Modifies the respiratory rate by communicating with medullary respiration center

100
Q

Pontine storage center & pontine micturition center

A

Nuclei involved in urination

Micturition: process of urinating

Interacts with cerebral cortex and sacral regions of the spinal cord

101
Q

Describe the medulla oblongata.

A

Tracts through the medulla oblongata allow communication between the brain and spinal cord

The crossing-over of its pyramids results in contralateral motor movement

Connected to cerebellum by the inferior cerebellar peduncle

Contains centers for coordination and control of visceral (autonomic) functions/reflexes

102
Q

Name the centers that relate to the medulla oblongata.

A

Cardiovascular centers

  • Cardiac centers: regulate heart rate and force of contraction
  • Vasomotor centers: regulate distribution of blood flow

Medullary respiratory center: controls the rate/depth of breathing (regulated by input from PRG of the pons)

Vomiting center
Deglutition (swallowing) center
Other reflex centers (coughing, sneezing)

103
Q

Describe the cerebellum.

A

Provides instructions to motor centers for smooth/coordinated/timely skeletal muscle movement

Responsible for balance and posture by making rapid adjustments to the postural muscles of the body

104
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

Monitors brain waves and prints a report of the electrical activity of the brain

105
Q

Name the four types of brain waves seen in an EEG.

A

Alpha, beta, theta, delta

106
Q

Describe alpha waves.

A

Found in healthy/awake adults at rest with closed eyes

Appears as a relatively regular/rhythmic/low amplitude wave that disappears during sleep or concentration

107
Q

Describe beta waves.

A

Higher frequency waves found in adults who are intensely concentrating or mentally active

108
Q

Describe theta waves.

A

Found in children, intensely frustrated adults, or adults with brain disorders

109
Q

Describe delta waves.

A

Found in awake infants, sleeping adults, or adults with severe brain damage

110
Q

Ataxia

A

A neurogenerative disease of the nervous system that results in the loss of coordinated movement of skeletal muscle, limbs, and mouth

111
Q

Cerebral palsy

A

Refers to any of the neurological disorders that appear in infancy/childhood that permanently affect body movement and muscle coordination

Caused by brain abnormalities/damage/infections

112
Q

Seizure

A

A temporary cerebral disorder with varying symptoms that changes the appearance of an EEG

113
Q

Concussion

A

A brain injury that can cause headaches, altered levels of alertness, loss of memory, unconsciousness, and/or hematomas

114
Q

Stupor

A

A state of near-unconsciousness

Potential causes include abuse/overdose of drugs/medications or extreme heat exposure

115
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

An irreversible, progressive brain disease caused by the formation of abnormal clumps (amyloid plaques), tangled bundles of fibers (neurofibrillary tangles), and the loss of connections between neurons in the brain

Symptoms include memory loss, language problems, and unpredictable behavior

Most common cause of dementia

116
Q

Dementia

A

Chronic disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury

Marked by memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning

117
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

A motor system disorder caused by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain

Symptoms include tremors, rigidity, slow movement, and postural instability

118
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

An inherited disease that causes certain neurons to die

Symptoms don’t appear until middle age, but include uncontrolled movement/balance issues that progress into the inability to walk/talk/swallow, memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning

119
Q

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

A

A progressive and eventually fatal disease caused by repeated traumatic brain injuries with inevitable dementia

BIOL 223 Lecture (26 decks)

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