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Anatomy and Physiology > Cells > Flashcards

Cells Flashcards

1
Q

cell

A

basic structural and functional unit of life

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2
Q

where do all cells come from?

A

from other cells
starts by single cell and divides many times

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3
Q

where do tissues and organs come from?

A

cells
differentiated by characteristics and proteins specific for bodily functions

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4
Q

biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their ___

A

structure and composition

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5
Q

bodily fluids

A

nutritious soups that bathe our cells

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6
Q

types of bodily fluids?

A

interstitial fluid -bathe organs
cerebrospinal fluid- in spinal cord and brain
plasma- blood vessels

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7
Q

cellular secretions

A

gastric fluids for digestion
saliva/mucous for lubrication

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8
Q

extracellular matrix

A

proteins and sugars secreted by cells that organize into jelly mesh
support tissue and function

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9
Q

plasma membrane

A

separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid

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10
Q

four components of plasma membrane?

A
  1. phospholipid bilayer- semipermeable barrier (hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads)
  2. proteins- transport and signaling
  3. cholesterol- membrane fluidity
  4. carbohydrates- identification and signaling
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11
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

fluid- movement and change
mosaic- many parts working together

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12
Q

how do phospholipids orient themselves in aqueous solutions?

A

polar heads face interior and exterior of the cell wall with the tails forming the center of the membrane

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13
Q

function of the plasma membrane?

A
  1. mechanical barrier
  2. selective permeability
  3. electrochemical gradient
  4. communication
  5. cell recognition
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14
Q

functions of membrane proteins?

A
  1. transport
  2. receptors
  3. attachment to extracellular matrix
  4. enzymes
  5. cell-cell adhesion
  6. cell-cell recognition
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15
Q

what do cell adhesion molecules do?

A

allow cells to anchor, migrate, attract other cells, mechanically sense tension, transmit intracellular signals

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16
Q

3 types of cell physical connections

A
  1. tight junction
  2. desmosome
  3. gap junction
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17
Q

tight junction

A

sealing junction encircling a cell separates one fluid filled area from another

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18
Q

where are tight junctions found in the body?

A

blood brain barrier
blood testis barrier
skin
digestive tract linings

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19
Q

desmosome

A

anchoring junctions along the sides of cells

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20
Q

where are desmosomes found in the body?

A

high stress zones (lots of mechanical pressure)
heart muscle
skin

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21
Q

gap junction

A

communication junctions allows chemicals to pass between cells
connects cytoplasm, no need to go through extracellular and attach to protein to start cascade

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22
Q

where are gap junctions found in the body?

A

electrically excitable tissue
heart
smooth muscle tissue

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23
Q

what type of physical connection would be found between runner’s heal skin cells?

A

desmosomes (high stress area)
tight junctions (some present for barrier)

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24
Q

cell signaling

A

ligands bind to receptors to stimulate chemical signaling
via neurotransmitters and hormones

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25
Q

receptors can act ____ or ____ to respond to the signal

A

directly or indirectly

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26
Q

how do secondary messengers amplify signals?

A

activate other enzymes or ion channels
form cascade of reactions

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27
Q

epinephrine

A

fight or flight response hormone

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28
Q

which tissue would least likely be the target of epinephrine? muscle, intestine, arteries and veins, or pupil?

A

intestine- stops when in fight or flight
(muscles to move, arteries to pump more blood to brain and muscle, pupil to better focus)

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29
Q

passive transport

A

movement from high to low concentration
moving toward equilibrium

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30
Q

types of passive transports?

A

diffusion
osmosis
filtration

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31
Q

active transport

A

movement from low to high concentration against their concentration gradient
requires energy through ATP
requires carrier proteins
moves cells away from equilibrium

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32
Q

example of active transport?

A

pumps

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33
Q

simple diffusion

A

transport of small or nonpolar molecules (O2/CO2)
move directly through lipid bilayer

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34
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport of large or polar molecules (glucose, water, amino acids, and ions)
transported through integral proteins embedded in membrane (carriers and channels)

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35
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water across semi permeable membrane
water moves from area with low solute concentration into areas of high solute concentration
due to equilibrium

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36
Q

isotonic

A

normal
solution has same solute concentration as cytosol

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37
Q

hypertonic

A

crenated
solution has greater solute concentration than cytosol
water moves out

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38
Q

hypotonic

A

lysed
solution has lower solute concentration that cytosol
water moves in

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39
Q

what type of solution is given IV to patient who is dehydrated?

A

hypotonic
has less solute concentration so water moves into cells to rehydrate

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40
Q

what type of solution is given for patient with edema?

A

hypertonic
high solute concentration outside cell draws water out of cells

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41
Q

primary active transport

A

uses ATP to transport solutes across the membrane against their concentration gradient

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42
Q

secondary active transport

A

protein couples the movement of an ion down its gradient to another molecule against its gradient

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43
Q

sodium potassium pump

A

creates an electrochemical gradient across membrane
cell uses the movement of Na or K to move other molecules
Sodium out, Potassium in

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44
Q

vesicular transport

A

vesicles transport large particles and large volumes

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45
Q

exocytosis

A

moves substances out of cell

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46
Q

endocytosis

A

move substances into cell

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47
Q

phagocytosis

A

cellular eating
type of endocytosis
engulfs large particles with pseudopodia
white blood cells

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48
Q

pinocytosis

A

cellular drinking
type of endocytosis
brings extracellular fluid and solutes into cell
routine sampling

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49
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

specific
membrane receptors bind specific molecules
LDL cholesterol receptors and insulin

50
Q

nucleus

A

control center

51
Q

nuclear envelope

A

double membrane with large pores to control transport

52
Q

nucleolus

A

where ribosomes are made
leave and attach to ER

53
Q

chromatin

A

DNA would around histone proteins
genetic library

54
Q

what type of chromatin is used if a gene needs to be expressed?

A

euchromatin- loosely wound, able to get proteins to bind to gene

55
Q

DNA

A

includes genes which have instructions to make proteins

56
Q

RNA

A

single stranded copy of DNA that can move to cytoplasm

57
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA
carries instructions for protein

58
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA, with help of rRNA, translation at the ribosome

59
Q

genetic law

A

DNA – transcription –> preRNA – RNA processing –> mRNA —translation –> polypeptide

60
Q

ribosomes

A

made of proteins and rRNAs
site of protein synthesis- translation

61
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

rough and smooth
continuous with nuclear membrane
function- proteins are folded and modified in rough ER

62
Q

golgi apparatus

A

flattened membranous sacs with lots of vesicles (received from ER)
functions in modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins

63
Q

glycosylation

A

carbohydrate chain added to protein in golgi

64
Q

how are vesicles transported across golgi?

A

vesicles from ER fuse with cis face
proteins exported from trans face in secretory vesicles

65
Q

what are the three fates of proteins leaving golgi?

A

proteins for secretion by exocytosis
proteins destined for membranes to fuse with and incorporated into
digestive enzymes that eventually fuse with or become lysosomes

66
Q

smooth ER function is tissue specific

A

liver- lipid breakdown and cholesterol metabolism, break down glycogen, detoxifies drugs and poisons
testes- synthesis of steroid based hormones
muscle- stores Ca2+ for contractions
intestine- absorption and synthesis of fats

67
Q

mitochondria

A

provides most of cell’s ATP
evolved from prokaryotes- double membrane, contain own DNA, can self replicate

68
Q

peroxisomes

A

detoxify cells, neutralize free radicals and hydrogen peroxide (byproducts of anaerobic respiration)
contain powerful enzymes like oxidases and catalases

69
Q

glutathione GSH

A

most abundant intracellular antioxidant
primarily in liver but can be made in most cells
removes hydrogen peroxide

70
Q

difference between lysosomes and peroxisomes?

A

lysosome- digest worn out organelles
peroxisome- digest dangerous materials/byproducts

71
Q

lysosomes

A

small organelles containing digestive enzymes

72
Q

4 functions of lysosome?

A
  1. protection- breaking down bacteria, viruses, and toxins
  2. recycling- nonfunctional organelles
  3. digestion- breaking down glycogen and lipids
  4. nutrition- releases Ca2+ from bone (materials the body needs)
73
Q

lysosomal storage diseases

A

Tay Sachs- unable to digest lipids
Pompe- unable to digest glycogen

74
Q

autophagy

A

“self cleaning”
excess organelles or cytoplasm are digested by lysosomes

75
Q

proteasomes

A

destroy misfolded or unneeded proteins
in ER to protect from bad proteins

76
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death
mitochondria break apart, caspase enzymes are released, cell advertises itself to macrophages

77
Q

cytoskeleton

A

skeleton of cell
dynamic- changes as cell’s needs change

78
Q

three types of cytoskeleton units?

A

microfilaments - resist compressions, used for cell movement and shape
intermediate filaments - resist pulling forces, support cells
microtubules- cell division, intracellular transport

79
Q

microvilli

A

supported by actin microfilaments greatly increase surface area of digestive cells to absorb nutrients

80
Q

cilia

A

whip like extensions on surface of cells
ex: in respiratory cells to clear debris from airway

81
Q

smoking effects on cilia?

A

excess mucous produced
become paralyzed and eventually destroyed
risk of lung infections

82
Q

cell division

A

mitosis- nuclear division
cytokinesis- cytoplasmic division
essential for growth and tissue repair

83
Q

3 aspects of making new healthy cells?

A

replication of DNA is tightly regulated
well organized structures and process for dividing up DNA
checkpoints to control division

84
Q

cell cycle

A

interphase- G1, S, and G2
mitotic phase - mitosis and cytokinesis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)

85
Q

DNA polymerase

A

makes new DNA using existing strands using nucleotide base pairing

86
Q

how is cytoskeleton in action in mitosis?

A

spindle complex made up of microtubules and centrioles in metaphase
actin microfilaments constrict cells in cytokinesis

87
Q

factors that influence control cell division

A

surface to volume ratio (bigger cells don’t need to divide)
growth factors and hormones
nutrients
contact inhibition
require place to adhere
limited number of divisions
checkpoints

88
Q

how is contact inhibition important for cell division control?

A

the cell wont divide if inhibited by other cells in space

89
Q

how is limited number of divisions important for cell division control?

A

telomeres get shortened each division
the cell will lose genetic material if telomeres are gone

90
Q

what proteins are involved in checkpoints?

A

cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases

91
Q

cancer

A

uncontrolled, increased cell division
frequent errors in DNA replication

92
Q

factors of cancer cells

A
  1. reproduce in defiance of normal restrictions/limits
  2. cells do not obey checkpoints in cycle
  3. tumor suppressors and proto-oncogenes are often mutated
93
Q

how are cancer cells genetically unstable?

A

unable to repair DNA damage
fail to maintain integrity of chromosomes but continue to divide

94
Q

what type of chromatin do cancer cells have more of?

A

heterochromatin (tightly wound)
silenced tumor suppressor genes so cell cant control cycle

95
Q

characteristics of cancer cells?

A

uncontrolled growth
lost contact inhibition
invasive
dedifferentiated

96
Q

metastatic

A

migrate and move away from anchored site
colonize to new area of body

97
Q

dedifferentiated

A

cancer cell does not look like original cell, more like a stem cell

98
Q

carcinomas

A

epithelial cancers
80% of human cancers
oral, digestive, respiratory, breast, reproductive, urinary

99
Q

sarcomas

A

connective tissue / muscle cancers

100
Q

leukemia/lymphomas

A

white blood cell cancers
immune system cells

101
Q

neuroblastoma

A

nerve cancer

102
Q

mutation

A

cancer begins with single event passed to all daughter cells

103
Q

primary tumor

A

detectable tumors that contain billions of cells
cancer cells in one area

104
Q

does cancer show up immediately after carcinogen exposure?

A

no

105
Q

how do different individuals have variations in cancer progression?

A

each cancer is an accumulation of mutations from different cells
treatment is different for different series of mutations

106
Q

metastases

A

secondary tumors

107
Q

what is the difference between benign tumor and malignant tumor?

A

malignant tumor has broken basal lamina layer and starts to travel
benign tumors havent broken tissue layer

108
Q

metastsis

A

responsible for 90% of cancer deaths
1. cell breaks free of normal constraints
2. uses blood or lymph vessels to travel
3. establishes colony in distant organ

109
Q

how does cancer become metastatic?

A

over-expression of migration factors- turn on genes to rearrange cytoskeleton to travel or genes to degrade extracellular matrix
loss of adhesion molecules- down-regulate adhesion genes

110
Q

angiogenesis

A

formation of new blood vessels
supply tumor with blood to grow more

111
Q

tumor microenvironment

A

cancer cells talk to surrounding cells and connective tissues to do things for cancer cell
ex: remodel extracellular matrix, cell to cell signaling

112
Q

causes of mutations?

A

carcinogens
radiation
viruses
mistakes in DNA replication

113
Q

carcinogens

A

chemicals that mutate DNA

114
Q

radiation

A

UV, Xrays, and gamma rays

115
Q

how does environment influence cancer?

A

individuals who migrate to new country show same cancer rate as those already living there
due to diet and lifestyle

116
Q

how do viruses cause cancer?

A

15%
virus insert genome into host cells DNA and cause mutations
commandeer cellular machinery to break restraints on DNA replication

117
Q

proto-oncogenes

A

a gene that normally promotes cell cycle
cancer- inappropriately activated, cells divide all the time

118
Q

tumor suppressors

A

a gene that normally inhibits cell cycle
cancer- inappropriately inactivated, cell has no checkpoints

119
Q

p53

A

tumor suppressor gene that controls cell cycle and apoptosis
levels rise if cell is stressed
turns on inhibitors of cell cycle or apoptotic genes
many cancers block p53 and allows for cell proliferation

120
Q

cancer treatments

A

surgery to remove tumors
drugs - treat simultaneously to avoid drug resistance
chemotherapy
radiation therapy

121
Q

cancer drug actions

A

re-differentiated cells- turn into normal adult cell and less like stem cell
induced cell death
inhibit new blood vessels- no angiogenesis
boost immune system- to recognize and destroy cancer cells

122
Q

how do acquired mutations give cancer cells selective advantages?

A

no growth restrictions
pump drugs out
avoid immune detection

Anatomy and Physiology (12 decks)

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