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SP MCAT Psych/Soc > Brain Biology > Flashcards

Brain Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

Sensory Neurons

A
  • afferent neurons

- sensory information -> spinal cord -> brain

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2
Q

Motor Neurons

A
  • efferent neurons

- motor information from brain/ spinal cord -> muscles/glands

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3
Q

Interneurons

A
  • most numerous type of neuron

- located mostly in the brain and spinal cord

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4
Q

Reflex Arcs

A
  • neural circuits

- link interneurons to reflexive behavior

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5
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

PNS

A
  • peripheral nervous system

- includes somatic ns and autonomic ns (parasympathetic and sympathetic)

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7
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A
  • sensory and motor neurons in skin, joints, muscles

- sensory to afferent fibers and motor to efferent fibers

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8
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions
  • involuntary
  • responsible for homeostasis
  • related to emotion because specific physiological reactions are associated with specific emotions
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9
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A
  • conserves energy
  • ‘rest and digest’
  • Ach is the main NT
  • constricts pupils, stimulates saliva, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates peristalsis and secretion, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder
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10
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • activated by stress
  • ‘fight or flight’
  • Epi is main NT
  • increases heart rate, sends blood to muscles, increases blood glucose concentration (via cortisol stimulation of gluconeogenesis), relaxes bronchi, decreases digestion, dilates eyes
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11
Q

Meninges

A
  • thick sheath of connective tissue covering the brain
  • helps protect brain
  • anchors brain in skull
  • resorbs cerebrospinal fluid
  • composed of 3 layers: dura mater (right under bone), arachnoid mater (middle), pia mater (closest to brain)
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12
Q

What are the subdivisions of the forebrain?

A
  • cerebral cortex
  • basal ganglia
  • limbic system
  • thalamus
  • hypothalamus
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13
Q

What are the subdivisions of the midbrain?

A
  • inferior colliculus

- superior colliculus

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14
Q

What are the subdivisions of the hindbrain?

A
  • cerebellum
  • medulla oblongata
  • reticular formation
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15
Q

Functions of Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

A

-controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, arousal

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16
Q

Functions of Medulla Oblongata

A
  • part of hindbrain

- regulates vital functions like heart rate, BP, breathing, digestion

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17
Q

Functions of Cerebellum

A
  • part of hindbrain
  • refined motor movements
  • maintains posture, balance, coordinates body movements
  • alcohol impairs this area
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18
Q

Functions of Reticular Formation

A
  • part of hindbrain

- arousal and alertness

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19
Q

What is the Pons?

A
  • part of hindbrain

- contains sensory and motor pathways between cortex and medulla

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20
Q

What happens if there is damage to the Cerebellum?

A
  • clumsiness
  • slurred speech
  • loss of balance
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21
Q

Functions of Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

A
  • receives sensory and motor information from body

- associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli

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22
Q

Functions of Superior Colliculus

A
  • part of midbrain
  • sensorimotor reflexes
  • nuclei here receive visual input
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23
Q

Functions of Inferior Colliculus

A
  • part of midbrain
  • sensorimotor reflexes
  • nuclei here receive sensory information from auditory input
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24
Q

Functions of Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

A
  • associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
  • associated with emotion and memory
  • has greatest influence on behavior
  • most ‘modern’ and largest portion of brain by weight and volume
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25
Q

During embryonic development what does the prosencephalon divide into?

A
  • telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system)
  • diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland)
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26
Q

During embryonic development what does the rhombencephalon divide into?

A
  • myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

- metencephalon (pons, cerebellum)

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27
Q

Functions of Thalamus

A
  • part of forebrain
  • relay station for sensory all information besides smell
  • sorts and transmits information to appropriate areas of cerebral cortex
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28
Q

Functions of Hypothalamus

A
  • part of forebrain
  • 4Fs: feeding, fighting, flighting, (sexual) functioning
  • serves homeostatic functions
  • key player in emotional experience
  • part of endocrine response
  • receptors here regulate metabolic, temperature, and water balance
  • synthesizes and releases NTs
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29
Q

Lateral Hypothalamus

A
  • part of forebrain
  • hunger center because has receptors to detect when body needs more food/fluids
  • when destroyed one Lacks Hunger
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30
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A
  • part of forebrain
  • satiety center
  • signals to stop eating
  • when destroyed one is Very Much Hungry
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31
Q

Anterior Hypothalamus

A
  • part of forebrain
  • controls sexual behavior
  • regulates sleep and body temperature
  • when destroyed one is Asexual
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32
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A
  • part of forebrain
  • axonal projection of hypothalamus
  • releases ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin
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33
Q

Pineal Gland

A
  • part of forebrain
  • secretes melatonin which regulates circadian rhythms
  • receives signals from retina for coordination with sunlight
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34
Q

Functions of Basal Ganglion

A
  • part of forebrain
  • coordinates muscle movement
  • receives information from cortex and relays information to the spinal cord
  • functions as a extrapyramidal system – gathers information about boy position and carries information to CNS but not directly via motor neurons
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35
Q

Describe Parkinsons Disease

A
  • results from destruction of portions of basal ganglia

- loss of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia

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36
Q

Functions of Limbic System

A
  • part of forebrain
  • consists of interconnected structures in central brain
  • associated with emotion, memory, and motivation
  • includes amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, parts of cerebral cortex
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37
Q

Functions of Amygdala

A
  • part of limbic system
  • signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions
  • processes the environment, detects external cues, and learns from surroundings to produce emotion
  • associated with fear and interpretation of facial expressions
  • controls implicit memory system
38
Q

Functions of Hippocampus

A
  • part of limbic system
  • located in temporal lobe
  • involved in creating long term memories
  • aids in creating context for stimuli to lead to an emotional experience
  • primarily controls explicit memory
39
Q

Functions of Septal Nuclei

A
  • part of limbic system

- contain a primary pleasure center associated with addiction

40
Q

What is a Fornix?

A

long projection from the hippocampus that allows for communication with parts of the limbic system

41
Q

Describe Anterograde Amnesia

A
  • occurs when one can’t establish new long term memories

- what HM had when parts of his amygdala and hippocampus was removed

42
Q

Describe Retrograde Amnesia

A
  • occurs when there is damage to the hippocampus

- occurs when there is memory loss of events that occurred before a brain injury

43
Q

Functions of Cerebral Cortex

A
  • part of forebrain
  • outer surface of the brain, sometimes called neocortex
  • complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
  • divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
44
Q

Frontal Lobe

A
  • comprised of the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex

- Broca’s Area is located here

45
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A
  • manages executive functions
  • supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, decision making, expressing personality, and long-term planning
  • example of association area – integrates input from diverse brain regions
  • receives arousal input from brainstem
46
Q

What happens if there is damage to the Prefrontal Cortex?

A
  • vulgar/sexually inappropriate comments
  • apathetic
  • impulsive
  • depressed
47
Q

What side of the PFC is associated with positive emotions?

A

Left PFC

48
Q

What side of the PFC is associated with negative emotions?

A

Right PFC

49
Q

What is the Dorsal Prefrontal Cortex associated with?

A

associated with attention and cognition

50
Q

Role of Ventral Prefrontal Cortex

A

connects with regions of brain responsible for experiencing emotion

51
Q

Role of Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex

A
  • decision making

- controls emotional responses from amydgala

52
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A
  • initiates voluntary movements

- has a motor homunculus

53
Q

Broca’s Area

A
  • found in left hemisphere

- involved in speech production

54
Q

What lobes does the central sulcus divide?

A

frontal lobe and parietal lobe

55
Q

What are gyri?

A

-bumps on the cerebral cortex of the brain

56
Q

What are sulci?

A
  • Silicon Valley*

- folds on the cerebral cortex of the brain

57
Q

Parietal Lobe

A
  • processes sensory information that has to do with taste, temperature, pressure, pain, and touch
  • somatosensory cortex is located here and it is a projection that receives sensory signals
  • central region is associated with spatial processing and manipulation
58
Q

Occipital Lobe

A
  • contains the visual cortex which is striated (striped)

- some areas are involved in learning and motor control

59
Q

Temporal Lobe

A
  • contains auditory cortex (sound processing)
  • contains Wernicke’s Area (associated with language reception and comprehension)
  • functions in memory processing, emotion and language
60
Q

What does it mean when we say the brain works contralaterally?

A

one side of brain communicates with opposite side of body

61
Q

What brain hemisphere functions in ipsilaterally?

A

the cerebral hemisphere communicates with the same side of the body (ex. hearing)

62
Q

Functions of Left Hemisphere

A
  • typically the dominant hemisphere

- associated with analytic functions, language, logic, math skills, movement

63
Q

Functions of Right Hemisphere

A
  • typically the nondominant hemisphere
  • associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing
  • interprets language according to emotional tone
64
Q

Acetylcholine

A
  • found in the CNS and PNS
  • works on nicotinic and muscarinic receptors
  • agonists: nicotine, muscarine, cholinesterase inhibitors
65
Q

Role of Ach in the CNS

A

-attention and arousal

66
Q

Role of Ach in the PNS

A
  • transmits nerve impulses to muscles at NMJ

- use mostly by the parasympathetic ns

67
Q

Epinephrine

A
  • catecholamine
  • active sympathomimetic hormone from the ADRENAL MEDULLA
  • stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic VASOCONSTRICTION and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the HEART, and dilates BRONCHI and cerebral vessels
  • adrenaline
  • plays a big role in ‘fight or flight’ response of sympathetic NS
68
Q

Dopamine

A
  • catecholamine
  • derived from TYROSINE
  • precursor to NOREPINEPHRINE and EPINEPHRINE
  • major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement
  • binds to alpha-1 and beta-1 adrenergic receptors
  • imbalances in transmissions of this play a role in schizophrenia
  • increased concentration of this in the basal ganglia
69
Q

Norepinephrine

A
  • catecholamine
  • precursor of epinephrine
  • secreted by the ADRENAL MEDULLA
  • widespread central and autonomic NT (sympathetic ns)
  • principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers
  • directly stimulates adrenergic receptors
  • involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness
  • decreased levels lead to depression
  • increase levels lead to mania/anxiety
70
Q

Serotonin

A
  • classified as a monoamine
  • biochemical messenger and regulator
  • synthesized from the essential amino acid L-Tryptophan
  • acts as a local transmitter at synapses, and as a paracrine or hormonal modulator of circuits upon diffusion, allowing a wide variety of “state-dependent” behavioral responses to different stimuli
  • modulates sleep, the arousal state, sexual behavior, mood, eating and dreaming
  • deficiencies cause disorders such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, phobias, posttraumatic stress disorder, epilepsy, anxiety disorder
71
Q

GABA

A
  • produces IPSPs
  • stabilizes neural activity in brain
  • causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane in CNS
  • inhibitory NT
72
Q

Glycine

A
  • inhibitory NT in CNS b/c it increases Cl- influx into neuron via binding to ionotropic receptors
  • non-essential, non-polar, non-optical, glucogenic amino acid
73
Q

Glutamate

A
  • excitatory NT in CNS
  • key molecule in cellular metabolism
  • most abundant fast excitatory neurotransmitter in ns
  • acts on receptors like NMDA
  • involved in cognitive functions like learning and memory
74
Q

List the methods used to map the brain

A
  • EEG
  • rCBF
  • CT
  • PET
  • MRI
  • fMRI
75
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A
  • electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons
  • place electrodes on scalp
  • noninvasive
  • relatively cheap
  • low resolution
76
Q

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

A
  • detects broad patterns of electrical activity
  • based on increased blood flow to active parts of brain
  • noninvasive
77
Q

CT

A
  • multiple x-rays taken and processed into cross-sectional slices of tissue
  • reasonably cheap
  • often done on patients who can’t stay in a MRI machine
  • can be done quickly (ex. stroke pts)
78
Q

PET

A
  • radioactive isotope agent injected into body -> annihilation event (isotope meets electrons in body) -> photons released
  • imaging shows agent’s dispersion and uptake throughout target tissues
  • measures photons
79
Q

MRI

A
  • magnetic field interactions with hydrogen
  • maps hydrogen dense regions of body
  • takes hours to do
  • very expensive
  • high resolution – golden standard
  • no radiation
80
Q

fMRI

A
  • measures changes associated with blood flow
  • way of monitoring neural activity
  • increased blood flow (oxyhemoglobin) = increased activation
  • measures where oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood is
81
Q

Endorphins

A
  • natural painkiller
  • produced in CNS and pituitary gland
  • actions similar to morphine and other opiods
82
Q

Which two imagining techniques are used to show brain structural information?

A
  • MRI

- CT

83
Q

Which 3 imagining techniques are used to show brain function?

A
  • fMRI
  • PET
  • EEG
84
Q

Does a MRI or CT scan provide a higher resolution image of the brain?

A

MRI

85
Q

Does a MRI use radiation?

A

No

86
Q

Phineas Gage

A
  • railroad accident lead to lesion of his frontal lobe
  • resulted in drastically different personality
  • unable to do randomized control trials because unethical, but can be done in animals
87
Q

Knock-Out Models

A
  • specific gene is taken out from an organism/animal
  • genes can be for receptors for NTs, etc
  • can see how this impacts animals growth function
88
Q

Knock-In Models

A
  • specific gene is added to an organism/animal that usually does not have this gene
  • can see how this impacts animals growth function
89
Q

In ______ there is stimulation of different electrical pathways and can see the effects.

A

Electrophysiology

90
Q

Deep Brain Stimulation is often used in treatment of ___ Disease, and helps create ___ of neurons.

A
  • Parkinsons

- firing

SP MCAT Psych/Soc (29 decks)

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