AAMC Practice Exams Flashcards
Parametric Test
- assume a normal (standard) distribution
- assumes sample data follow a probability distribution based on a fixed set of parameters
- includes: T tests, ANOVA, survival analysis
Non-Parametric Test
- do not assume a normal (standard) distribution
- based on fewer assumptions
- includes: Mann-Whitney U Test, Kruskal Wallis Test
Extrinsic Motivation
- any motivation that results from incentives to perform a behavior that are not inherent to the behavior itself
- includes punishers and reinforcers
Base Rate Fallacy
- refers to the error people make when they ignore the base rates (ex. prior probabilities) when evaluating the probabilities (or frequencies) of events
- Ex. Imagine that I show you a bag of 250 M&Ms with equal numbers of 5 different colors. Then, I ask you what the probability is I will pick a green one while my eyes are closed? I also tell you that green M&Ms are my favorite and yesterday I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red ones. If you ignored the fact that there are 50 of each color, and instead focused on the fact that I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red yesterday, you have committed a base rate fallacy because what I did yesterday is irrelevant information.
Hindsight Bias
- “I knew it all along” effect
- the tendency for a person to overestimate how well he or she could have successfully predicted a known outcome
- Ex. a “forecast” given before the outcome is actually known
What is the main function of the retina?
detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process
[retina contains photoreceptors such as rods and cones which detect light and transduce light to energy; the energy becomes an AP and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual cortex]
What is the function of the lens?
- focus incoming light rays on the photoreceptors
- located behind the iris
- focuses/refracts light to create a focal point
Glass Escalator Concept
-suggests that men who pursue occupations that have high proportions of women (such as teaching or nursing) will quickly ascend the career ladder with promotions
Labeling Theory
- suggests that people are often placed into social categories
- labeling people affects their self image, and can lead to either more conformity or deviance
- Ex. labeling someone as a pothead can either cause them to stop smoking because they are ashamed of being a pothead. Or, they can embrace the label and say, yep, that’s what I do.
Strain Theory
- social structure can pressure people to commit crime
- Ex. A lower class at the bottom of society, with all the discrimination associated with it, pressures that individual to steal
Social Control
ways to prevent anarchy (state of disorder due to lack of authority)
Informal Social Control
- unenforced social norms
- Ex. you don’t tell jokes at a funeral
Socialization
- describes the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, peer values, customs, and beliefs
- views of society become the accepted viewpoint and are adopted by the individuals within it
- the process by which a person becomes a member of a group, and learning the moral standards of the group is important to retaining group membership
Reference Group
- groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves
- Ex. to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are you may consider yourself in relation to the group of medical school applicants
Cultural Capital
- assets beyond money that can help lead to social mobility
- Ex. having a large vocabulary, having a MD, well-dressed
Maladaptiveness
- when a behavior interferes with a person’s life
- when an individual does not adequately or appropriately adjust to an environment or situation
ERICKSON
Adolescences struggle with ___ vs ____
identity vs role confusion
ERICKSON
Young adults struggle with ___ vs ___
intimacy vs isolation
ERICKSON
Middle-aged adults struggle with ___ vs ___
generativity vs stagnation
ERICKSON
Elderly adults struggle with ___ vs ____
integrity vs despair
Patients with Schizophrenia have high levels of ___ activity
dopamine
What would happen if a patient with Schizophrenia received a dopamine antagonist?
their positive symptoms would decrease – less hallucinations and delusions
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
- Physiological + Cognitive -> Emotion*
- emotional experience is determined by one’s physiological state and the cognitive interpretation of that state
- both arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment are required to feel emotion
- stimulus -> nervous system arousal + cognitive appraisal -> conscious emotion
Gender Socialization
-the learning of norms and values associated with masculinity or femininity
Cognitive Component of Attitude
- consists of a person’s beliefs/thoughts/knowledge about an attitude object
- Ex. “I believe spiders are dangerous”
Behavioral Component of Attitude
- consists of the typical responses/ways we act when an individual is in the presence of an object
- Ex. “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”
Affective Component of Attitude
- consists of the emotional experience evoked by the attitude object
- Ex. “I am scared of spiders”
What is the strongest indicator of alcohol dependence?
withdrawal symptoms
Bootstrapping
the initial stages of grammatical (ex. syntactic) development
Systematic Desensitization
- classical conditioning technique
- the intensity of an unconditioned stimulus is gradually increased until it no longer elicits the conditioned response
Elaborative Encoding
-combining new (to-be-remembered) information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information
Monocular Depth Cues
- RETINAL HEIGHT (objects higher in visual field are viewed as farther away than objects lower in visual field)
- OCCLUSION (objects covered by other objects are viewed as farther away than the object that blocks it)
- TEXTURE GRADIENT (objects with more detailed textures are viewed as closer than objects with less detailed textures)
Binocular Depth Cue
- RETINAL DISPARITY (objects in front of point of focus are viewed as closer than objects behind the point of focus)
- CONVERGENCE (the closer an object the more inward our eyes have to turn in order to focus)
Cultural Lag
- occurs when norms and values have yet to catch up with technological advances
- takes place when values/ways of thinking/ideologies evolve slower than technology
- Ex. Medical technology is now being used to keep people’s bodies functioning long after they would otherwise have been declared dead.
- Ex. stem cells can be stored in order to cure diseases later in life, however the extraction of the embryonic stem cells is considered unethical as it is seen
Disinhibition
- pattern of behavior that is characterized by impulsivity and disregard for social norms and authority
- lack of restraint from negative behavior
- often associated with binge drinking and often leads to risk taking
Role Strain
involves tensions in the demands from a SINGLE social role
Role Conflict
- tensions stemming from multiple social roles
- often occurs when balancing the demands of one role with other roles
Self-Efficacy
refers to a person’s belief in their ability to accomplish tasks
Symbolic Interactionism posits that individuals develop a sense of self or identity through:
interactions and relationships they have with others
[symbolic interactionism theory suggests that social relationships are fundamental for individuals to develop a sense of who they are]
Symbolic Interactionism
- micro
- focuses on interactions between individuals
- explains an individual in society and their interactions with others
- the development of the individual and the meanings individuals assign to things are both social processes
- individuals assign meanings to things in order to decide how to act
What are the 3 tenants of symbolic interactionism?
- individuals act based on the meaning they give something
(ex. I view a tree as a nice, shady place to sit and sit under one on a hot day) - individuals give meanings to things based on their social interactions
(ex. Another person views a tree as a home to fire ants and does not sit under trees) - the meaning individuals give something is not permanent
(ex. I got bit by a fire ant while sitting under a tree so I now view the tree as a shady place to sit with the possibility of a fire ant attack)
Where are proprioceptors found in the body?
- vestibular system
- muscles
- tendons
Where are chemoreceptors found in the body?
- carotid bodies
- aortic arch
Where are osmoreceptors found in the human body?
-hypothalamus
Dependency Ratio
ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members
Structural Poverty
-poverty due to a defect in economic structure
Marginal Poverty
lack stable employment
What psychoactive drug has the lowest risk of dependence?
Hallucinogens
Oral Stage
- occurs from birth to 12-18 months
- interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, and biting
Anal Stage
- occurs from 1 to 3 years
- child derives pleasure from pooping during this period when they are being toilet trained
Phallic Stage
- occurs from 3 to 6 years
- formation of Oedipus Complex (boy wants to kill father and get with mother) or Electra Complex (girl wants to kill mother and get with dad)
Genital Stage
- occurs from puberty to adulthood
- time of sexual experimentation
- fixation here results in sexual perversions in the future
Hindsight Bias
-the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it
Post Hoc Fallacy
-a logical fallacy of the questionable cause variety that states ‘Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X.’
Fallacy
the use of poor, or invalid, reasoning for the construction of an argument
Interference
- the loss of information from memory because of competition from additional incoming information
- Ex. when people study new material any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e. encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation
Acquisition
occurs when a stimulus that is neutral is associated with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response
Thomas Theorem
- if we define situations as real then they are real in their consequences
- Ex. guy in prison with a violent history thinks other people in the prison are talking about him even though they aren’t, but, since he thinks they are he goes over and hits them. His perception of the situation led to the action
How can the validity of a measure be tested?
- by comparing the results of the measure against a well-known/valid measure for the variable being studied
- Ex. negative correlation between scores on the empathy questionnaire and the personal distress questionnaire
Assortive Mating
individuals are more likely to mate with others who have similar traits (ex. intelligence, similar body types and appearance, etc)
Disassortive Mating
individuals are more likely to mate with others who have different traits than their own
Psychoanalytic Therapy Method
- focus on childhood and early life, and the unconscious mind
- Freud falls into this category and later Carl Jung
Social Cognitive Approach to Therapy
- focus on adaptive cognitive strategies of emotional regulation
- reciprocal deterministic relationship between the individual, his or her environment, and behavior; all three elements dynamically and reciprocally interact with and upon one another to form the basis for behavior
- an individual’s thoughts and feelings drive their behavior
Humanistic Method of Therapy
-focuses on present conditions and future goals to move an individual toward more congruence between real and ideal selves
Harry Harlow
-conducted experiments on social isolation in baby monkeys, with a focus on attachment
What two things did Albert Bandura Pioneer?
- Social Cognitive Perspective
- Observational Learning
[think of the Bobo Doll experiment]
What psychologist is most associated with the concept of the “self-actualizing tendency”?
Carl Rogers
- humanist psychologist
- believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of ‘human-beingness’ we can
- for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood)
Phenomenological Method
- technique used to evaluate the experience of some phenomenon and obtain introspective details about an event
- method is usually qualitative or descriptive
Secure Attachment
- children view their mother as a secure base from which they can explore
- they are distressed with their mother leaves but are comforted when she returns
Avoidant Attachment
- child’s needs are often not being met
- children treat their mother and a stranger similarly in the way they show little regard for either
- child does not seem to care when mother leaves or returns
- these children grow into rebellious adults with low self esteem
Ambivalent Attachment
- also know as anxious or preoccupied attachment
- child is extremely distressed when the mother leaves and continues to be distressed upon the mothers return
- could indicate child has inconsistent care at home
Disorganized Attachment
- typified by freezing or rocking, and can include other irregular behaviors like hugging strangers
- indicates the child does not know how to act and could be an indicator of neglect or abuse
- often cry when mother leaves but are still distressed when their parent returns because they both want attention from their parent and fear them
Sleeper Effect
- occurs when you are persuaded by something that you originally thought was less credible to begin with
- Ex. while watching a TV see a commercial for a body wash that kills 100% of germs, and you assume the person who made the soap is not educated and not a credible source; two weeks later you recommend that body soap to your mom because you have forgotten it came from that less credible source
What brain scans provide information on structures?
- MRI
- CT
What brain scans provide information on function?
- fMRI
- EEG
- PET
CT Scans
- structural
- quick to do
- reasonably cheap
- not a high resolution of the brain
- use of radiation
- Ex. use when trying to figure out if someone had a stroke and where this may have occurred in their brain
MRI
- structural
- takes a few hours
- very expensive
- high resolution –> golden standard
- no radiation
- takes advantage of protons in the body and use of a magnetic field
fMRI
- functional
- measures levels of oxygenated blood in the brain – more active parts mean more oxygen consumption
- often used when asked the question: “What regions of the brain are activated during a task?”
PET Scans
- functional
- involves injection of a radioactive isotope that interacts with electrons in the body to release photons that can be measured by this scan – measures PHOTONS
- often used to identify where specific receptors are in the brain
EEG
- functional
- non-invasive because just places electrodes on head
- electrodes measure the activity of groups of neurons that are beneath the electrode
- not expensive
- low resolution
- used in experiments to get global/big picture information
- Ex. used to figure out what stage of sleep you are in by looking at the waves from an EEG
Compliance
- change in behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment
- does not necessarily mean a change in behavior or attitude
- Ex. Asch experiment where individual agreed with group of confederates even though they knew the confederates were wrong – individual was being compliant
Identification
- change in beliefs to be similar to someone you admire
- do not necessarily believe in these attitudes/beliefs but adopt them because you admire the person that has them
Internalization
-actually change your attitude/beliefs because you agree with the content of that belief
Expectancy-Value Theory
- idea that if you have certain expectations of the value of each of your options, then you pick the option that you expect to give you the most value/largest reward
- engage in action that you believe will be most valuable to you
If you view someone or something (news outlet/source) as ____, it is more likely for you to change your mind/behavior.
credible
[more likely to be persuaded by something/someone you view as highly credible]
Humans are more likely to change their ___ to match a ___
- belief
- behavior
-EX] republican gets hired by a democratic candidate to work on their campaign, which leads to the republican changes their beliefs on the democratic party rather than quitting the job
Catharsis Hypothesis
- ONLY refers to anger
- decrease the feeling of anger by releasing it through aggressive actions/fantasies
- doesn’t decrease anger long-term and could even increase anger long-term
- Ex. punching a pillow
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
- muscles tensed/relaxed in each facial expression transmit information back to the brain about your emotional state, in addition to information from brain
- Ex. adults watch commercial with pencil in mouth (mimics smiling) and give higher ratings compared to adults without a pencil in their mouth
Recency Effect
- the recall of items that are still present in short term memory – usually the last items on a list/words listed to someone
- for this to occur and be measured, recall needs to take place immediately after encoding
A humanistic psychologist believes there are 3 components that make up our self-concept which include:
- Self-Worth (what we think of ourselves)
- Self-Image (how we see ourself, influence of our body image on our inner personality)
- Ideal-Self (the person we want to be; consists of our goals and ambitions)
