Biology and Behavior Flashcards
Franz Gall (1758-1828)
- earliest theory that behavior, intellect and personality might be linked to the brains anatomy
- Developed doctrine of phrenology
- Thought that you could measure brain power by measuring the size of the skull
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
- first to study the major functions of the brain
- Extirpation/ablation done on pigeons and rabbits
Extirpation/ablation
various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the consequences are observed
William James (1842-1910)
- father of American psychology
- Functionalism
Functionalism
system of thought that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
John Dewey (1859-1952)
- part of the inception of functionalism
- Believed that psychology should focus on the study of an organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment
Paul Broca (1824-1880)
- Examined behavioural defects of people with brain damage
- First to demonstrate that specific impairments could be linked to specific brain lesions
Broca’s Area
area of the brain where a lesion causes the person to be unable to talk. Found on the left side of the brain
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
- measured the speed of a nerve impulse
- Turned psychology into a natural science field
Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)
- found the existence of a synapse
- Thought it was an electrical process, but it is actually a chemical process
Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons)
transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and the brain
Motor Neurons (efferent neurons)
transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
Interneurons
- found between the above two neurons and are the most abundant
- Mainly found in the brain and spinal cord and linked to reflexive behavior
Reflex Arc
neural circuits that control this behavior
Central Nervous System
composed of brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
-composed of nerve tissue and fibers that are outside of the brain and spinal cord
-into the
somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Somatic Nervous System
sensory and motor neurons that are distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
- regulates heartbeat, respiration rate, digestion, and glandular secretion
- Manages involuntary muscles that are associated with many internal organs and glands
- Can be subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Parasympathetic Nervous System
-main goal is to conserve energy
- “rest-and-digest”
-Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic
responses in the body
Sympathetic Nervous System
- activated by stress
- “flight-or-fight”
- Epinephrine is released into the bloodstream
Meninges
- thick sheath of protective tissue covering the brain
- three layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
Cerebrospinal fluid
- aqueous solution where the brain and spinal cord rest
- Produced by cells that line the ventricles
limbic system
group of neural structures that are primarily associated with emotion and memory
Cerebral Cortex
- Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
- Associated with many things such as language processing, problem solving, impulse control or long-term planning
Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
- Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
- Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion and general arousal (sleep/wake)
- manages vital functions that are necessary for survival
Myelencephalon
- forms into the medulla oblongata from rhombencephalon
- responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Metencephalon
- forms the pons and the cerebellum from rhombencephalon
- Pons lie above the medulla and contain the sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
- Cerebellum helps in maintaining posture/balance & coordinates the body’s movements
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
- Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body
- Associated with involuntary reflex responses that are triggered by visual or audio stimuli
- Location of several prominent nuclei (two called colliculi)
Superior Colliculi
receives visual sensory input
Inferior Colliculi
receives sensory information from the auditory system
Forebrain (prosencephalon)
- Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes
- Associated with emotion and memory
Telencephalon
forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system from the forebrain
Diencephalon
forms the thalamus, hypothalamus. Posterior pituitary gland and pineal gland from the forebrain
Neuropsychology
study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
involves placing electrodes on the scalp and the electrodes are used to record the electrical activity produced by the brain
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
detects broad patters of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
Computed Tomography (CT)
multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
Function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Uses same technique as MRI, but measures the changes associated with blood flow
Forebrain: Thalamus
- Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information
- Once information is received, the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate cerebral cortex
Forebrain: Hypothalamus
- subdivided into three sections
- serves homeostatic functions
- involved in emotional experiences during high arousal states
- helps in the control of some endocrine functions and the autonomic nervous system that is directly tied to its main function of maintaining homeostasis
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)
- Special receptors that detect when the body needs more food or fluids
- “The hunger center”
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
- provides signals to stop eating
- “Satiety Center”
Anterior Hypothalamus
- controls sexual behavior. Damage of this leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity
- regulates sleep and body temperature
Forebrain: Posterior Pituitary
- compromised of axonal projections form the hypothalamus
- site of release for the hypothalamic hormones: antidiuretic hormones (ADH/vasopressin) & oxytocin
Forebrain: Pineal Gland
- Secretes melatonin
- receives direct signals from the retina so that it can coordinate with sunlight
Basal Ganglia
- muscle movements as they receive information from the cortex
- Relays information to the brain and the spinal cord after the information is received
Extrapyramidal System
gathers information about body position and carries the information to the central nervous system
Septal Nuclei
- primary pleasure center of the brain
- Associated with addictive behavior
Amygdala
- role in defensive and aggressive behaviors
Hippocampus
- role in learning and memory processes
- Helps consolidate information to form long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex
Anterograde Amnesia
not being able to establish new long-term memories
Retrograde Amnesia
memory loss of events that transpired before a brain injury
Cerebral Cortex
- Has numerous bumps (gyri) and folds (sulci)
- four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, & Temporal
Frontal Lobe
Comprised of two basic regions: prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
- manages executive function by supervising and direction the operations of other brain regions
- Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning
Association Area
integrates information from different cortical regions
Primary Motor Cortex
-initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord towards the muscles
Projection Area
where a specific area only performs a single simple perceptual or motor task
motor homunculus
depicts the location of how neurons are arranged
Parietal Lobe
- contains Somatosensory cortex
- includes a region associated with spatial processing and manipulation
Somatosensory cortex
destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature and pain
Occipital Lobe
- contains the visual cortex
- involved in learning and motor control
Temporal Lobe
- Location of the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area
- functions in memory processing, emotion and language
Auditory Cortex
primary site of most sound processing
Wernicke’s area
associated with language reception and comprehension
contralaterally
opposite sides
ipsilaterally
same sides
Dominant Hemisphere
- primarily analytical in function which makes it well-suited for managing details
- Language, logic and math skills
Non-dominant Hemisphere
-associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
Acetylcholine
- In PNS: used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
- In the CNS: linked to attention and arousal
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
- in the control of alertness and wakefulness
- Primary transmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, it promotes the flight-or-fight response
Dopamine
- role in movement and posture
- high concentrations in the basal ganglia
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
argues that delusion. Hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine
Serotonin
- role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
- oversupply produces mania; Undersupply produces depression
y-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
- produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
- role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
Glycine
Serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS
Glutamate
Excitatory transmitter in the CNS
Endorphins
body’s natural painkillers that are produced by the brain
Endocrine System
uses chemical messengers called hormones
Endocrine System: Pituitary Gland
- located at the base of the brain and is divided into two parts
- secretes many hormones into the bloodstream that are able to travel to other endocrine glands
Endocrine System: Anterior Pituitary
- master since it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands
- controlled by the hypothalamus
Endocrine System: Adrenal Glands
located at the top of the kidneys and divided into two parts: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
Endocrine System: Adrenal Medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
Endocrine System: Adrenal Cortex
produces many corticosteroids: hormones like cortisol (stress hormone), Testosterone/Estrogen (sex hormones
Innate Behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of their environment or experience
Learned Behaviors
not based on heredity but on experience and environment instead
Adaptive Value
degree to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species
Family Studies
rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
Twin Studies
Compares the concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Concordance Rate
the likelihood that twins exhibit the same trait
Adoption Studies
Compare the similarity between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child
Neurulation
occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow
Reflex
behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
Rooting reflex
automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
primitive reflexes
disappear as infants age
Moro Reflex
abrupt movement of infant’s head makes them fling up their arms
Babinski Reflex
causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
Grasping Reflex
infants close his or her fingers around an object placed in hand
Gross Motor Skills
movement of large muscle groups and whole body motion
Fine Motor Skills
smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes
Stranger Anxiety
fear of unfamiliar individuals begins at seven months
Separation Anxiety
fear of being separated from parental figure begins at one year
Parallel Play
children will play alongside one another but won’t influence the others behavior
