Anatomy Final Flashcards
Anatomical Position
Arms at side, palms facing forward and feet together
Supine
Lying face up
Prone
Lying face down
Anterior/Ventral
Front or stomach surface
Posterior/Dorsal
Back
Superior
Higher, above
Inferior
Lower, below
Medial
Towards the midline of the body
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body
Proximal (Limbs)
Towards the origin of of a structure/ origin of attachment
Distal (Limbs)
Away from the origin of of a structure/ origin of attachment
Superficial
Near the surface
Deep
Away from the surface
Transverse sectional plane
Cuts the body into superior and inferior parts
Frontal sectional plane
Cuts the body into ventral and dorsal parts
Sagittal sectional plane
Cuts the body into left and right parts
Homeostasis
Maintenance of a stable internal environment
Homeostatic Autoregulation (Intrinsic)
Cells and tissues adjust to an environmental change
Extrinsic Homeostasis
System outside of tissues and cells make adjustments.
Ex. nervous/’endocrine system
Homeostatic Mechanism
- Receptor - Receives stimuli
- Control center - Receives and processes stimuli
- Effector - Gives a response that either opposes or enhances stimuli
Negative Feedback
Most homeostatic mechanism use negative feedback. Negative feedback negates or opposes the initial stimuli.
I.e. AC of the body
Serous Membranes
Produces a thin lubricating liquid
Visceral
Covers Organs
Parietal
Lines cavity walls
Pleural Membranes
Visceral and parietal membranes of the lungs
Pericardium
Visceral and parietal membranes of the heart
Peritoneum
Visceral and parietal membranes of the abdomen
Ionic Bond
Transfer of electrons; attraction between two oppositely charged ions; weak bonds which easily dissociate.
Loss of an electron in the valance shell to bond.
Covalent Bonds
Strong single and double bonds; can be polar or nonpolar
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Electrons are equally shared between atoms; No Charge
Polar Covalent Bonds
Electrons are shared unequally between atoms; results in polar molecules which have one negative and one positive end; Charge
Ex. Water
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and other atoms of other molecules.
pH Scale
Acidic to Basic;
1-6.9: Acidic.
7.1-14: Basic
7: Neutral/Water
Organic Molecules
Compounds which always contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and sometimes Oxygen
Carbohydrates
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Carbon + Water. C:H:O = 1:2:1 Ratio
Includes sugars and starches; Glucose
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides.
Lipids
Carbon and Hydrogen; C:H = 1:2. Insoluble in water and nonpolar
Triglycerides: stores energy
Phospholipid: Major component of cell membrane
Steroids: Cholesterol/Hormones
Fatty Acids
Saturated: Solid
Unsaturated: Liquid; from plants
Proteins
Central carbon C; Hydrogen atom H; Amino part NH2; Carboxylic acid COOH; Variable group R.
C, H, NH2, COOH, R
Function of Proteins
- Support - connective tissue
- Movement - contractile proteins
- Transport - carry substance in blood
- Buffering - acts as acid or base
- Metabolic Regulation - enzymes
- Coordination and Control - hormones
- Defense - antibodies
Structure of Proteins
Primary structure: amino acids linked together to from polypeptide chains
Secondary structure: polypeptide chains fold and coil
Tertiary structure: Coiled chains twist and turn
Quaternary structure: Two tertiary structures held together
Fibrous proteins
Structural proteins
Globular proteins
Functional proteins
Nucleotides
Sugar; phosphate; nitrogenous base
Nucleic Acids
Stores and processes genetic information. DNA; RNA
Plasma Membrane Phospholipid Bi-layer
Hydrophilic head; Hydrophobic tail. Gives cell stability
DNA
Stores genetic information in the nucleus
Double Helix: Two polynucleotide chains
A-T, C-G. Complimentary chains
RNA
Stores genetic information in the cytoplasm
Made from DNA, carries information to make proteins
Different base Uracil instead of Thymine
Simple Diffusion
Movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
- Does not require ATP
- Allows gases and lipids to pass through
Facilitated Diffusion
Requires a carrier protein to pass through
- Does not require ATP
- Allows for carbohydrates and amino acids to pass through
Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response to solute differences
- Water moves with the gradient (more water to less water)
- Equilibrium
- Does not require ATP
Active Transport/Solute Pump
- Involves a carrier protein
- Requires ATP
- Goes against the gradient (Low to high)
Pinocytosis
Cell drinking
-Requires ATP
Phagocytosis
Cell eating (WBCs)
-Requires ATP
Exocytosis
Ejection of materials from the cell
- Requires ATP
Cell Membrane Components
- Phospholipid Bi-Layer
- Proteins
- Glycoproteins
- Cholesterol
Cell Membrane Protein Functions
- Anchoring
- Recognition
- Enzymes
- Receptors
- Carrier
- Channels
Cytosol
Intracellular fluid
Cell Organelles
Functional Structures
- membranous
- nonmebraneous
Cytoskeleton
Strengthens and anchors the cell and it’s processes
Microvilli
Finger like extensions which increase the surface area of a cell
Centrioles
Bundles of microtubules active in cell division
Cilia
Moves substances across the cell’s surface; flagellum
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis
Proteasomes
Breakdown of intracellular parts (organelles)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Series of interconnected tubes which acts as a communication and transport center
Rough ER
- Associated with ribosomes
- Protein synthesis
- Sends transport vesicles to Golgi apparatus
Smooth ER
- No ribosomes
- Synthesis and storage of ;
Lipids
Glycogen
Steroid hormones
Phospholipids, cholesterol - detoxification
Golgi Apparatus
Stack of membrane bound discs
- Modifies and packages secretion
- Renews and modifies cell membrane
Lysosomes
Breakdown metabolic waste products
- Made by golgi apparatus
Peroxisomes
Enzymes which break down free radicals
Mitochondria
Site of aerobic cellular respiration (produce energy)
- cristae
Nucleus
Contains the genetic material of the cell and directs the activities of the cell.
- Separated by cytoplasm by nuclear envelope
Histones
Package and regulate DNA
Transcription
DNA - mRNA
- Takes place in the nucleus
Translation
mRNA - tRNA
- Change from RNA to a protein
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
Mitosis
Cell division which results in two identical daughter cells.
- The longer the life span of a cell the slower the mitotic rate
- Abnormal cell division produces tumors
Epithelial Tissues
Lines all free body surfaces
- Cells fit together closely
- Attached surface and free surface
- Attached by non-living membrane
- Avascular
- Regenerate easily
Epithelial Tissue Functions
- Physical protection
- Control permeability
- Provide sensation
- Produces specialized secretions (mucous)
- Movement of materials across surface (Cilia)
Simple Epithelial
One layer of cells over basement membrane
Stratified Epithelial
Many cell layers above basement membrane
Squamous Epithelial
Flat cells
Cuboidal Epithelial
Cube shaped cells
Columnar Epithelial
Tall, thin cells
Simple Squamous Epithelial
Single layer of flat cells
- Serous membrane
- secretes lubricating fluid
- lines blood vessels
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial
Single layer of cube shaped cells
- Secretion and absorption
- glands, ducts, and kidney tubules
Simple Columnar Epithelial
Single layer of tall, thin cells
- Secretion of digestive enzymes, absorption of nutrients
- Lining of GI tract
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelial
Single layer of cells but some cells are longer than others
- often looks like double layer
- Secretion
- Lining of respiratory tract
Stratified Squamous
Many layers of flat cells
- Protection, withstand abrasion
- Skin, lining of oral cavity
Transitional Epithelial
Specialized to change in response to stretching
- Shape of cells depends on amount of stretching
Connective Tissue
- Establish a structural framework
- Establish and interconnect other tissue
- protects and support delicate organs
- Stores energy reserves
Fibroblasts
Produce connective tissue matrix
Fibrocytes
mature and maintain matrix
macrophage
Phagocytic white blood cells
Adipocytes
Fat cells
Mesenchymal cells
Stem cells
Melanocytes
Produce Melanin
Areolar Tissue
Holds organs and tissues together
Adipose Tissue
Cushions, protects and stores lipids (energy)
Hyaline Cartilage
Reduces friction between articulating bones
Elastic Cartilage
Elastic Support
Epidermis
Superficial skin surface
- epithelial tissue
- avascular
Dermis
Underlies epidermis
- mostly connective tissue
- vascular
Hypodermis
Underlies dermis
- mostly adipose or areolar tissue
- Anchors skin to underlying structure
Keratinized cells
Makes epidermis water resistant
Stratum Corneum
Outermost layer of epidermis
Stratum Basale
Innermost layer of epidermis, mitosis take place here
Papillary layer of the dermis
Provides nourishment to the epidermis
- contains sensory nerves
- causes finger prints
Reticular layer of the dermis
Provides the dermis with durability
Hair
Originates in hair follicle in the dermis out into the epidermis
- Arrector pili muscle
Sebaceous Glands
Produce Sebum
- Lubricates hair and keeps skin soft
Sudoriferous Glands
Produces sweat
- Appocrine sweat glands produce an odor
- Eccrine sweat glands do not produce an odor and are responsible for thermoregulation
Nails
Keratinized epidermal cells
Compact Bone
Dense organized bone tissue found in the shaft of a bone
- Found where stresses are limited in direction
Spongy bone
Porous bone tissue located in the epiphysis of bones
- found where stresses are weaker or multi-directional
Osteon Structure
Structural unit of a bone
- central canal - blood vessels
- lamellae - rings of bony matrix
- lacunae - cavities holding osteocytes
- canaliculi - small canals for the movement of substances
Ossification
Converting other tissue to bone
- mostly with cartilage (calcification)
- endochondral
- intramembranous
Epiphyseal Plate
allows for growth of long bone during childhood
Bone Remodeling
Recycles and renews the organic and mineral components of the bone matrix
- Response to stress and body’s needs
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
- maintain matrix
- In lacunae
- connected by canaliculi
Osteoblasts
Synthesize new matrix
Osteoclasts
Dissolve bone matrix
Fibrous Joints
Joined by fibrous connective tissue
- Immovable
Cartilaginous Joints
Two bones joined by cartilage
- sklighlty moveable
Synovial Joints
Joined by joint cavity
- freely moveable
Synarthroses
Immovable joints, fibrous / cartilaginous
- Suture
- Gomphosis (teeth)
- Synchondrosis (Epiphyseal plate)
- Syntosis (two bones completely fused)
Amphiarthroses
Slightly moveable joints, fibrous / cartilaginous
- syndesmosis (bones connected by a ligament)
- symphysis (bone separated by fibrocartilage)
Diarthroses
Freely moveable joints, synovial joints
- Synovial joint
- most joints of appendicular skeleton
Flexion (angular)
Decreases the angle between two parts
Extension (angular)
Increasing the angle between two parts
Hyperextension (angular)
Extending beyond the anatomical position
Abduction
Movement away from the body’s midline
Adduction
Movement towards the body’s midline
Circumduction
Combination of flexion, adduction, extension, abduction
Pronation
Palm up to down
Supination
Palm down to up
Skeletal Muscle
Attached to bone
- Voluntary
- Striated
- Multinucleated
Smooth Muscle
Lines hollow organs
- Involuntary
- Non-striated
- One nucleus
Cardiac Muscle
Found in the heart
- Involuntary
- Striated
- Intercalated discs
Structure of Muscle Organ
- Epimysium
- Perimysium
- Endomysium
Perimysium
Surrounds muscle with dense fibrous connective tissue
Perimysium
Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers
Endomysium
Covers individual muscle fibers
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane of a muscle fiber
T-tubules
Tubes of the sarcolemma
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Elaborate smooth ER
- terminal cisternae
- stores Ca++
Myofibrils
Organelle that contain bundles of myofilaments arranged into units called sarcomeres
Sarcomere structure
Functional unit of muscle fiber (contracting)
- made up of myofilaments
- Thin actin filament
- Thick myosin filament
Muscle Fiber Contraction
- Actin slides past myosin
- Ends of sarcomere come closer together, sarcomere shortens
- All sarcomeres shorten; myofibril shortens
- All myofibrils shorten and the muscle fiber shortens
Sliding Filament Theory
- Cyclic process begins with calcium release from SR
- Calcium binds to troponin
- Troponin moves, moving tropomyosin and exposing actin active site
- Myosin head in high energy configuration has been waiting to interact with actin
- Myosin head pivots (high low) pulling actin over myosin
- ATP allows release of cross bridge
- Hydrolysis of ATP; Myosin head goes from low to high
- Reattaches to actin and pivots again
- Interaction will continue as long as Ca++ is present
- Actin slides past myosin
Neuromuscular Junction
Site where motor neuron and muscle fiber meet
-Synaptic (axon) terminals: Branched ends of motor neuron
-Synaptic cleft: Gap between motor neuron and sarcolemma
- Motor end plate: Sarcolemma modified with special channels and receptors for ACh
Skeletal Muscle Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine (ACh); opens Na+ gates when it attaches to receptors on motor end plate
Events of Excitation
- Arrival of the action potential (signal)
- Release of Ach
- ACh binding at the motor end plate; changes permeability to Na+
- Generation of action potential in sarcolemma begins with the influx of Na+
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
- Ca++ binds to troponin which causes tropomyosin to move
- High energy myosin heads can attach to actin
- High energy myosin heads to Low energy myosin
pulling actin towards center of sarcomere - ATP binds to Low energy myosin, releases myosin from myosin binding site on actin
- Hydrolysis of ATP by myosin ATPase; Energy is transferred to myosin to high energy myosin head
Recruitment
Increasing the number of active motor units
Cretin Phosphate
Coupling creatine phosphate with ADP
CP + ADP = ATP + C
Aerobic Respiration
- Presence of O2
- Occurs in mitochondria
- 34 molecules ATP for 1 molecule of glucose
Anaerobic glycolysis
- Without O2 cardiovascular system cannot supply
- 2 ATP Produced per glucose molecule
Afferent
Sensory (to CNS)
Efferent
Motor (away from CNS)
Neuron Function
- Respond to stimuli
- Conduct nerve impulses
- High demand for 02
Neuron Structure
Cell body: contains nucleus
Dendrites: receive stimuli
Axon: conduct impulses
Axon hillock: Initial segment
Collaterals: Branches
Telodendria: Fine extensions, secrete neurotransmitters
Neuroglia of CNS
- Ependymal Cells
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Oligodendrocytes
Ependymal Cells
- Lined fluid filled cavities of CNS
- Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid
Astrocytes
Maintain Blood –Brain barrier (BBB)
- Isolation of CNS from general circulation
- Regulate composition of interstitial fluid of CNS
- Structural support
- Form scar tissue
Microglia
Phagocytic cells
Oligodendrocytes
Myelination of CNS axons
Neuroglia of PNS
- Satellite Cells
- Schwann Cells
Satellite Cells
- Surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia
- Regulate exchange with interstitial fluid
Schwann Cells
Myelinating cells of the PNS
Myelin Sheath
-Fatty wrapping around axon
-Electrically insulates and protects
-Increases speed of transmission of signal
-Loss of myelin = loss of function
Resting Transmembrane Potential
The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
- Outside=net positive; Inside= net negative; due largely to the distribution of Na+ and K+
- Most neurons it is -70mV
- Maintained by Na/K pump
Depolarization
Inside becomes more positive
- may result in an action potential (long distance signal)
Hyperpolarization
Inside becomes more negative
- inhibits an action potential
Repolarization
Return to resting membrane potential
Graded Potential
- Occur on the dendrites or cell body
- Involves chemically gated ion channels (environmentally)
May be:
1l. Depolarization ; open Na+ channels
2. Hyperpolarization; open K+ channels
Weaken as they travel
Amount of depolarization depends on size of stimulus
Action Potential
A self-propagated change in the transmembrane potential (Nerve Impulse)
Steps of an Action Potential
- region of excitable membrane (axon) depolarizes to threshold
- Activation gates of voltage gated sodium channels open; Na+ rushes into cell (Depolarization)
- Inactivation gates of voltage gated Na+ channels close at peak potential +30mV
- Voltage gated K+ channels to open; K+ rushes out; Repolarization
- Reestablishes resting membrane potential
Structure of the Spinal Cord
31 spinal segments
- Area of spinal cord; gives rise to dorsal & ventral roots
- Spinal nerves extend off cord
- Union of dorsal & ventral roots
Cervical nerves
C1 – C8
Thoracic nerve
T 1 – T 12
Lumbar nerves
L1 – L5
Sacral nerves
S1 – S5
Coccygeal
C0
Enlargements of Spinal Cord
Cervical enlargement – nerves to shoulders and arms
Lumbar enlargement – nerves to pelvis and legs
Filum Terminale
Thin fibrous tissues anchoring cord in vertebral canal
Cauda Equine
Collection of spinal nerves in lumbar region
Conus Medullaris
Cone shaped ending of spinal cord
White matter
Axons arranged in tracts and columns, myelinated fibers and some unmyelinated (conducting)
Gray Matter
Cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, neuroglia, synapses
- integration and processing
Tracts
Bundle of axons within the CNS
Spinal Nerve
31 pairs of nerves
- Mixed nerves
- Result from the union of the dorsal (posterior)and ventral (anterior) roots
Ventral Root to Ventral Horn
Motor
- Cell bodies of motor neurons in ventral horn
Dorsal Root to Dorsal Horn
Sensory
Cell bodies of sensory neurons in dorsal horn
Dorsal Root ganglion
Cell bodies of sensory neurons
Ventral Rami
Part of nerve plexus which extends towards the front
Dorsal Rami
Part of nerve plexus which innervates the back of body
Structure of a Spinal Nerve
Bundle of nerve fibers (axons), blood vessels held together by layers of connective tissue
- union of dorsal (sensory) and (motor) ventral root
- epineurium
- perineurium
- endoneurium
Reflex Arc Steps
- Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
- Activation of sensory neuron
- Information processing
- Activation of motor neuron
- Response by effector
Epidural Space
Separates dura mater from walls of vertebral canal
- filled with fat
Dura Mater
Outer covering of spinal cord and nerves
Arachnoid
Internal to dura mater
- Spider web extensions
- Forms subarachnoid space filled with CSF
Pia Mater
Innermost meningeal layer
- Adheres directly to spinal cord surface
Brain Stem
Processes information between spinal cord and cerebrum, or cerebellum
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla Oblongata
- White matter tracts
Midbrain
Ear, eye, and head reflexes
- RAS (consciousness)
Pons
Links cerebellum to cerebrum, brain stem, and spinal cord
- Respiratory Center
Medulla Oblongata
Connects brain with spinal cord
- Cardiac reflex
- Vasomotor reflex
- respiratory reflex
White matter tracs
Cerebellum
“Little brain”
-basic survival functions
- maintains balance and equilibrium
- monitors visual and auditory signals
Arbor Vitae
White matter
Diencephalon
Inner core; links cerebrum to brain stem
Epithalamus
Choroid Plexus
- pineal gland (secretes melatonin)
Thalamus
Relays sensory information to the primary sensory cortex
Hypothalamus
- Physical emotion expression
- Controls unconscious function
- Coordinates endocrine and nervous system together
- Secretes hormones
- Regulate body temperature
- regulate circadian rhythm
Cerebral Cortex
Controls all conscious thoughts and intellectual functions
Processes somatic sensory and motor information
Frontal Lobe
- Movement
- Executive function
- Memory
- Personality
Parietal Lobe
Processes sensory information
Temporal lobe
Processes auditory information
Occipital lobe
Processes visual information
Broca’s Area
responsible for speech production
Association Fibers
Connections within one hemisphere
Projection Fibers
Connects cerebrum to lower areas
Corpus Callosum
Connects two hemispheres
Basal Nuclei
Paired masses of gray matter (nuclei) embedded in white matter of cerebrum
Somatic Nervous System
- One efferent neuron
- Effects skeleton muscle
- One neurotransmitter = ACh
- One effect = excitation
- Control center = cerebral motor cortex
Autonomic Nervous System
- Two linked efferent neurons
- Synapse in ganglia
- Effector organs = cardiac, smooth, and glands
- ACh and NE
- Excitation and inhibition
- Control center = hypothalamus
Sympathetic ANS
Fight or flight
- Thoracolumbar
- Ganglia close to spinal cord
- Short preganglionic
- Long postganglionic
- Widespread effect
parasympathetic ANS
Rest and digest
- Craniosacral
- Long preganglionic
- Short postganglionic
- Localized effect
Receptors
Allows cells to pick up neurotransmitters
- Cholinergic
- Adrenergic
Difference between endocrine and exocrine glands
Exocrine have a duct while endocrine go straight into the blood
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development and estrogen secretion in females and sperm production in males
Luteinizing Hormone
Causes ovulation and progesterone production in females and androgen (testosterone) production in males
Calcitonin/Parathyroid Hormone
Helps regulate calcium levels in body fluids
Epinephrine/Noreepinephrine
- Enhances and amplifies effects of SNS stimulation
- Increases cardiac activity, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
- Short term stress
Antidiuretic Hormone/Aldosterone
Acts on kidney tubules promoting reabsorption of water from filtrate (urine)
Insulin/Glucagon
Regulate blood sugar levels
