Anatomy Final Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomical Position
A
Arms at side, palms facing forward and feet together
2
Q
Supine
A
Lying face up
3
Q
Prone
A
Lying face down
4
Q
Anterior/Ventral
A
Front or stomach surface
5
Q
Posterior/Dorsal
A
Back
6
Q
Superior
A
Higher, above
7
Q
Inferior
A
Lower, below
8
Q
Medial
A
Towards the midline of the body
9
Q
Lateral
A
Away from the midline of the body
10
Q
Proximal (Limbs)
A
Towards the origin of of a structure/ origin of attachment
11
Q
Distal (Limbs)
A
Away from the origin of of a structure/ origin of attachment
12
Q
Superficial
A
Near the surface
13
Q
Deep
A
Away from the surface
14
Q
Transverse sectional plane
A
Cuts the body into superior and inferior parts
15
Q
Frontal sectional plane
A
Cuts the body into ventral and dorsal parts
16
Q
Sagittal sectional plane
A
Cuts the body into left and right parts
17
Q
Homeostasis
A
Maintenance of a stable internal environment
18
Q
Homeostatic Autoregulation (Intrinsic)
A
Cells and tissues adjust to an environmental change
19
Q
Extrinsic Homeostasis
A
System outside of tissues and cells make adjustments.
Ex. nervous/’endocrine system
20
Q
Homeostatic Mechanism
A
- Receptor - Receives stimuli
- Control center - Receives and processes stimuli
- Effector - Gives a response that either opposes or enhances stimuli
21
Q
Negative Feedback
A
Most homeostatic mechanism use negative feedback. Negative feedback negates or opposes the initial stimuli.
I.e. AC of the body
22
Q
Serous Membranes
A
Produces a thin lubricating liquid
23
Q
Visceral
A
Covers Organs
24
Q
Parietal
A
Lines cavity walls
25
Pleural Membranes
Visceral and parietal membranes of the lungs
26
Pericardium
Visceral and parietal membranes of the heart
27
Peritoneum
Visceral and parietal membranes of the abdomen
28
Ionic Bond
Transfer of electrons; attraction between two oppositely charged ions; weak bonds which easily dissociate.
Loss of an electron in the valance shell to bond.
29
Covalent Bonds
Strong single and double bonds; can be polar or nonpolar
30
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Electrons are equally shared between atoms; No Charge
31
Polar Covalent Bonds
Electrons are shared unequally between atoms; results in polar molecules which have one negative and one positive end; Charge
Ex. Water
32
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and other atoms of other molecules.
33
pH Scale
Acidic to Basic;
1-6.9: Acidic.
7.1-14: Basic
7: Neutral/Water
34
Organic Molecules
Compounds which always contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and sometimes Oxygen
35
Carbohydrates
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Carbon + Water. C:H:O = 1:2:1 Ratio
Includes sugars and starches; Glucose
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides.
36
Lipids
Carbon and Hydrogen; C:H = 1:2. Insoluble in water and nonpolar
Triglycerides: stores energy
Phospholipid: Major component of cell membrane
Steroids: Cholesterol/Hormones
37
Fatty Acids
Saturated: Solid
Unsaturated: Liquid; from plants
38
Proteins
Central carbon C; Hydrogen atom H; Amino part NH2; Carboxylic acid COOH; Variable group R.
C, H, NH2, COOH, R
39
Function of Proteins
1. Support - connective tissue
2. Movement - contractile proteins
3. Transport - carry substance in blood
4. Buffering - acts as acid or base
5. Metabolic Regulation - enzymes
6. Coordination and Control - hormones
7. Defense - antibodies
40
Structure of Proteins
Primary structure: amino acids linked together to from polypeptide chains
Secondary structure: polypeptide chains fold and coil
Tertiary structure: Coiled chains twist and turn
Quaternary structure: Two tertiary structures held together
41
Fibrous proteins
Structural proteins
42
Globular proteins
Functional proteins
43
Nucleotides
Sugar; phosphate; nitrogenous base
44
Nucleic Acids
Stores and processes genetic information. DNA; RNA
45
Plasma Membrane Phospholipid Bi-layer
Hydrophilic head; Hydrophobic tail. Gives cell stability
46
DNA
Stores genetic information in the nucleus
Double Helix: Two polynucleotide chains
A-T, C-G. Complimentary chains
47
RNA
Stores genetic information in the cytoplasm
Made from DNA, carries information to make proteins
Different base Uracil instead of Thymine
48
Simple Diffusion
Movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
- Does not require ATP
- Allows gases and lipids to pass through
49
Facilitated Diffusion
Requires a carrier protein to pass through
- Does not require ATP
- Allows for carbohydrates and amino acids to pass through
50
Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response to solute differences
- Water moves with the gradient (more water to less water)
- Equilibrium
- Does not require ATP
51
Active Transport/Solute Pump
- Involves a carrier protein
- Requires ATP
- Goes against the gradient (Low to high)
52
Pinocytosis
Cell drinking
-Requires ATP
53
Phagocytosis
Cell eating (WBCs)
-Requires ATP
54
Exocytosis
Ejection of materials from the cell
- Requires ATP
55
Cell Membrane Components
- Phospholipid Bi-Layer
- Proteins
- Glycoproteins
- Cholesterol
56
Cell Membrane Protein Functions
1. Anchoring
2. Recognition
3. Enzymes
4. Receptors
5. Carrier
6. Channels
57
Cytosol
Intracellular fluid
58
Cell Organelles
Functional Structures
- membranous
- nonmebraneous
59
Cytoskeleton
Strengthens and anchors the cell and it's processes
60
Microvilli
Finger like extensions which increase the surface area of a cell
61
Centrioles
Bundles of microtubules active in cell division
62
Cilia
Moves substances across the cell's surface; flagellum
63
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis
64
Proteasomes
Breakdown of intracellular parts (organelles)
65
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Series of interconnected tubes which acts as a communication and transport center
66
Rough ER
- Associated with ribosomes
- Protein synthesis
- Sends transport vesicles to Golgi apparatus
67
Smooth ER
- No ribosomes
- Synthesis and storage of ;
Lipids
Glycogen
Steroid hormones
Phospholipids, cholesterol
- detoxification
68
Golgi Apparatus
Stack of membrane bound discs
- Modifies and packages secretion
- Renews and modifies cell membrane
69
Lysosomes
Breakdown metabolic waste products
- Made by golgi apparatus
70
Peroxisomes
Enzymes which break down free radicals
71
Mitochondria
Site of aerobic cellular respiration (produce energy)
- cristae
72
Nucleus
Contains the genetic material of the cell and directs the activities of the cell.
- Separated by cytoplasm by nuclear envelope
73
Histones
Package and regulate DNA
74
Transcription
DNA - mRNA
- Takes place in the nucleus
75
Translation
mRNA - tRNA
- Change from RNA to a protein
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
76
Mitosis
Cell division which results in two identical daughter cells.
- The longer the life span of a cell the slower the mitotic rate
- Abnormal cell division produces tumors
77
Epithelial Tissues
Lines all free body surfaces
- Cells fit together closely
- Attached surface and free surface
- Attached by non-living membrane
- Avascular
- Regenerate easily
78
Epithelial Tissue Functions
1. Physical protection
2. Control permeability
3. Provide sensation
4. Produces specialized secretions (mucous)
5. Movement of materials across surface (Cilia)
79
Simple Epithelial
One layer of cells over basement membrane
80
Stratified Epithelial
Many cell layers above basement membrane
81
Squamous Epithelial
Flat cells
82
Cuboidal Epithelial
Cube shaped cells
83
Columnar Epithelial
Tall, thin cells
84
Simple Squamous Epithelial
Single layer of flat cells
- Serous membrane
- secretes lubricating fluid
- lines blood vessels
85
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial
Single layer of cube shaped cells
- Secretion and absorption
- glands, ducts, and kidney tubules
86
Simple Columnar Epithelial
Single layer of tall, thin cells
- Secretion of digestive enzymes, absorption of nutrients
- Lining of GI tract
87
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelial
Single layer of cells but some cells are longer than others
- often looks like double layer
- Secretion
- Lining of respiratory tract
88
Stratified Squamous
Many layers of flat cells
- Protection, withstand abrasion
- Skin, lining of oral cavity
89
Transitional Epithelial
Specialized to change in response to stretching
- Shape of cells depends on amount of stretching
90
Connective Tissue
- Establish a structural framework
- Establish and interconnect other tissue
- protects and support delicate organs
- Stores energy reserves
91
Fibroblasts
Produce connective tissue matrix
92
Fibrocytes
mature and maintain matrix
93
macrophage
Phagocytic white blood cells
94
Adipocytes
Fat cells
95
Mesenchymal cells
Stem cells
96
Melanocytes
Produce Melanin
97
Areolar Tissue
Holds organs and tissues together
98
Adipose Tissue
Cushions, protects and stores lipids (energy)
99
Hyaline Cartilage
Reduces friction between articulating bones
100
Elastic Cartilage
Elastic Support
101
Epidermis
Superficial skin surface
- epithelial tissue
- avascular
102
Dermis
Underlies epidermis
- mostly connective tissue
- vascular
103
Hypodermis
Underlies dermis
- mostly adipose or areolar tissue
- Anchors skin to underlying structure
104
Keratinized cells
Makes epidermis water resistant
105
Stratum Corneum
Outermost layer of epidermis
106
Stratum Basale
Innermost layer of epidermis, mitosis take place here
107
Papillary layer of the dermis
Provides nourishment to the epidermis
- contains sensory nerves
- causes finger prints
108
Reticular layer of the dermis
Provides the dermis with durability
109
Hair
Originates in hair follicle in the dermis out into the epidermis
- Arrector pili muscle
110
Sebaceous Glands
Produce Sebum
- Lubricates hair and keeps skin soft
111
Sudoriferous Glands
Produces sweat
- Appocrine sweat glands produce an odor
- Eccrine sweat glands do not produce an odor and are responsible for thermoregulation
112
Nails
Keratinized epidermal cells
113
Compact Bone
Dense organized bone tissue found in the shaft of a bone
- Found where stresses are limited in direction
114
Spongy bone
Porous bone tissue located in the epiphysis of bones
- found where stresses are weaker or multi-directional
115
Osteon Structure
Structural unit of a bone
- central canal - blood vessels
- lamellae - rings of bony matrix
- lacunae - cavities holding osteocytes
- canaliculi - small canals for the movement of substances
116
Ossification
Converting other tissue to bone
- mostly with cartilage (calcification)
- endochondral
- intramembranous
117
Epiphyseal Plate
allows for growth of long bone during childhood
118
Bone Remodeling
Recycles and renews the organic and mineral components of the bone matrix
- Response to stress and body's needs
119
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
- maintain matrix
- In lacunae
- connected by canaliculi
120
Osteoblasts
Synthesize new matrix
121
Osteoclasts
Dissolve bone matrix
122
Fibrous Joints
Joined by fibrous connective tissue
- Immovable
123
Cartilaginous Joints
Two bones joined by cartilage
- sklighlty moveable
124
Synovial Joints
Joined by joint cavity
- freely moveable
125
Synarthroses
Immovable joints, fibrous / cartilaginous
- Suture
- Gomphosis (teeth)
- Synchondrosis (Epiphyseal plate)
- Syntosis (two bones completely fused)
126
Amphiarthroses
Slightly moveable joints, fibrous / cartilaginous
- syndesmosis (bones connected by a ligament)
- symphysis (bone separated by fibrocartilage)
127
Diarthroses
Freely moveable joints, synovial joints
- Synovial joint
- most joints of appendicular skeleton
128
Flexion (angular)
Decreases the angle between two parts
129
Extension (angular)
Increasing the angle between two parts
130
Hyperextension (angular)
Extending beyond the anatomical position
131
Abduction
Movement away from the body's midline
132
Adduction
Movement towards the body's midline
133
Circumduction
Combination of flexion, adduction, extension, abduction
134
Pronation
Palm up to down
135
Supination
Palm down to up
136
Skeletal Muscle
Attached to bone
- Voluntary
- Striated
- Multinucleated
137
Smooth Muscle
Lines hollow organs
- Involuntary
- Non-striated
- One nucleus
138
Cardiac Muscle
Found in the heart
- Involuntary
- Striated
- Intercalated discs
139
Structure of Muscle Organ
1. Epimysium
2. Perimysium
3. Endomysium
140
Perimysium
Surrounds muscle with dense fibrous connective tissue
141
Perimysium
Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers
142
Endomysium
Covers individual muscle fibers
143
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane of a muscle fiber
144
T-tubules
Tubes of the sarcolemma
145
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Elaborate smooth ER
- terminal cisternae
- stores Ca++
146
Myofibrils
Organelle that contain bundles of myofilaments arranged into units called sarcomeres
147
Sarcomere structure
Functional unit of muscle fiber (contracting)
- made up of myofilaments
- Thin actin filament
- Thick myosin filament
148
Muscle Fiber Contraction
1. Actin slides past myosin
2. Ends of sarcomere come closer together, sarcomere shortens
3. All sarcomeres shorten; myofibril shortens
4. All myofibrils shorten and the muscle fiber shortens
149
Sliding Filament Theory
1. Cyclic process begins with calcium release from SR
2. Calcium binds to troponin
3. Troponin moves, moving tropomyosin and exposing actin active site
4. Myosin head in high energy configuration has been waiting to interact with actin
5. Myosin head pivots (high low) pulling actin over myosin
6. ATP allows release of cross bridge
7. Hydrolysis of ATP; Myosin head goes from low to high
7. Reattaches to actin and pivots again
8. Interaction will continue as long as Ca++ is present
- Actin slides past myosin
150
Neuromuscular Junction
Site where motor neuron and muscle fiber meet
-Synaptic (axon) terminals: Branched ends of motor neuron
-Synaptic cleft: Gap between motor neuron and sarcolemma
- Motor end plate: Sarcolemma modified with special channels and receptors for ACh
151
Skeletal Muscle Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine (ACh); opens Na+ gates when it attaches to receptors on motor end plate
152
Events of Excitation
1. Arrival of the action potential (signal)
2. Release of Ach
3. ACh binding at the motor end plate; changes permeability to Na+
4. Generation of action potential in sarcolemma begins with the influx of Na+
153
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
1. Ca++ binds to troponin which causes tropomyosin to move
2. High energy myosin heads can attach to actin
3. High energy myosin heads to Low energy myosin
pulling actin towards center of sarcomere
4. ATP binds to Low energy myosin, releases myosin from myosin binding site on actin
5. Hydrolysis of ATP by myosin ATPase; Energy is transferred to myosin to high energy myosin head
154
Recruitment
Increasing the number of active motor units
155
Cretin Phosphate
Coupling creatine phosphate with ADP
CP + ADP = ATP + C
156
Aerobic Respiration
- Presence of O2
- Occurs in mitochondria
- 34 molecules ATP for 1 molecule of glucose
157
Anaerobic glycolysis
- Without O2 cardiovascular system cannot supply
- 2 ATP Produced per glucose molecule
158
Afferent
Sensory (to CNS)
159
Efferent
Motor (away from CNS)
160
Neuron Function
1. Respond to stimuli
2. Conduct nerve impulses
- High demand for 02
161
Neuron Structure
Cell body: contains nucleus
Dendrites: receive stimuli
Axon: conduct impulses
Axon hillock: Initial segment
Collaterals: Branches
Telodendria: Fine extensions, secrete neurotransmitters
162
Neuroglia of CNS
1. Ependymal Cells
2. Astrocytes
3. Microglia
4. Oligodendrocytes
163
Ependymal Cells
- Lined fluid filled cavities of CNS
- Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid
164
Astrocytes
Maintain Blood –Brain barrier (BBB)
- Isolation of CNS from general circulation
- Regulate composition of interstitial fluid of CNS
- Structural support
- Form scar tissue
165
Microglia
Phagocytic cells
166
Oligodendrocytes
Myelination of CNS axons
167
Neuroglia of PNS
1. Satellite Cells
2. Schwann Cells
168
Satellite Cells
- Surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia
- Regulate exchange with interstitial fluid
169
Schwann Cells
Myelinating cells of the PNS
170
Myelin Sheath
-Fatty wrapping around axon
-Electrically insulates and protects
-Increases speed of transmission of signal
-Loss of myelin = loss of function
171
Resting Transmembrane Potential
The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
- Outside=net positive; Inside= net negative; due largely to the distribution of Na+ and K+
- Most neurons it is -70mV
- *Maintained by Na/K pump*
172
Depolarization
Inside becomes more positive
- may result in an action potential (long distance signal)
173
Hyperpolarization
Inside becomes more negative
- inhibits an action potential
174
Repolarization
Return to resting membrane potential
175
Graded Potential
- Occur on the dendrites or cell body
- Involves chemically gated ion channels (environmentally)
May be:
1l. Depolarization ; open Na+ channels
2. Hyperpolarization; open K+ channels
Weaken as they travel
Amount of depolarization depends on size of stimulus
176
Action Potential
A self-propagated change in the transmembrane potential (Nerve Impulse)
177
Steps of an Action Potential
1. region of excitable membrane (axon) depolarizes to threshold
2. Activation gates of voltage gated sodium channels open; Na+ rushes into cell (Depolarization)
3. Inactivation gates of voltage gated Na+ channels close at peak potential +30mV
4. Voltage gated K+ channels to open; K+ rushes out; Repolarization
- Reestablishes resting membrane potential
178
Structure of the Spinal Cord
31 spinal segments
- Area of spinal cord; gives rise to dorsal & ventral roots
- Spinal nerves extend off cord
- Union of dorsal & ventral roots
Cervical nerves
C1 – C8
Thoracic nerve
T 1 – T 12
Lumbar nerves
L1 – L5
Sacral nerves
S1 – S5
Coccygeal
C0
179
Enlargements of Spinal Cord
Cervical enlargement – nerves to shoulders and arms
Lumbar enlargement – nerves to pelvis and legs
180
Filum Terminale
Thin fibrous tissues anchoring cord in vertebral canal
181
Cauda Equine
Collection of spinal nerves in lumbar region
182
Conus Medullaris
Cone shaped ending of spinal cord
183
White matter
Axons arranged in tracts and columns, myelinated fibers and some unmyelinated (conducting)
184
Gray Matter
Cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, neuroglia, synapses
- integration and processing
185
Tracts
Bundle of axons within the CNS
186
Spinal Nerve
31 pairs of nerves
- Mixed nerves
- Result from the union of the dorsal (posterior)and ventral (anterior) roots
187
Ventral Root to Ventral Horn
Motor
- Cell bodies of motor neurons in ventral horn
188
Dorsal Root to Dorsal Horn
Sensory
Cell bodies of sensory neurons in dorsal horn
189
Dorsal Root ganglion
Cell bodies of sensory neurons
190
Ventral Rami
Part of nerve plexus which extends towards the front
191
Dorsal Rami
Part of nerve plexus which innervates the back of body
192
Structure of a Spinal Nerve
Bundle of nerve fibers (axons), blood vessels held together by layers of connective tissue
- union of dorsal (sensory) and (motor) ventral root
- epineurium
- perineurium
- endoneurium
193
Reflex Arc Steps
1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
2. Activation of sensory neuron
3. Information processing
4. Activation of motor neuron
5. Response by effector
194
Epidural Space
Separates dura mater from walls of vertebral canal
- filled with fat
195
Dura Mater
Outer covering of spinal cord and nerves
196
Arachnoid
Internal to dura mater
- Spider web extensions
- Forms subarachnoid space filled with CSF
197
Pia Mater
Innermost meningeal layer
- Adheres directly to spinal cord surface
198
Brain Stem
Processes information between spinal cord and cerebrum, or cerebellum
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla Oblongata
- White matter tracts
199
Midbrain
Ear, eye, and head reflexes
- RAS (consciousness)
200
Pons
Links cerebellum to cerebrum, brain stem, and spinal cord
- Respiratory Center
201
Medulla Oblongata
Connects brain with spinal cord
- Cardiac reflex
- Vasomotor reflex
- respiratory reflex
White matter tracs
202
Cerebellum
"Little brain"
-basic survival functions
- maintains balance and equilibrium
- monitors visual and auditory signals
203
Arbor Vitae
White matter
204
Diencephalon
Inner core; links cerebrum to brain stem
205
Epithalamus
Choroid Plexus
- pineal gland (secretes melatonin)
206
Thalamus
Relays sensory information to the primary sensory cortex
207
Hypothalamus
1. Physical emotion expression
2. Controls unconscious function
3. Coordinates endocrine and nervous system together
4. Secretes hormones
6. Regulate body temperature
7. regulate circadian rhythm
208
Cerebral Cortex
Controls all conscious thoughts and intellectual functions
Processes somatic sensory and motor information
209
Frontal Lobe
- Movement
- Executive function
- Memory
- Personality
210
Parietal Lobe
Processes sensory information
211
Temporal lobe
Processes auditory information
212
Occipital lobe
Processes visual information
213
Broca's Area
responsible for speech production
214
Association Fibers
Connections within one hemisphere
215
Projection Fibers
Connects cerebrum to lower areas
216
Corpus Callosum
Connects two hemispheres
217
Basal Nuclei
Paired masses of gray matter (nuclei) embedded in white matter of cerebrum
218
Somatic Nervous System
1. One efferent neuron
2. Effects skeleton muscle
3. One neurotransmitter = ACh
4. One effect = excitation
5. Control center = cerebral motor cortex
219
Autonomic Nervous System
1. Two linked efferent neurons
2. Synapse in ganglia
3. Effector organs = cardiac, smooth, and glands
4. ACh and NE
5. Excitation and inhibition
6. Control center = hypothalamus
220
Sympathetic ANS
Fight or flight
- Thoracolumbar
- Ganglia close to spinal cord
- Short preganglionic
- Long postganglionic
- Widespread effect
221
parasympathetic ANS
Rest and digest
- Craniosacral
- Long preganglionic
- Short postganglionic
- Localized effect
222
Receptors
Allows cells to pick up neurotransmitters
- Cholinergic
- Adrenergic
223
Difference between endocrine and exocrine glands
Exocrine have a duct while endocrine go straight into the blood
224
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development and estrogen secretion in females and sperm production in males
225
Luteinizing Hormone
Causes ovulation and progesterone production in females and androgen (testosterone) production in males
226
Calcitonin/Parathyroid Hormone
Helps regulate calcium levels in body fluids
227
Epinephrine/Noreepinephrine
1. Enhances and amplifies effects of SNS stimulation
2. Increases cardiac activity, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
3. Short term stress
228
Antidiuretic Hormone/Aldosterone
Acts on kidney tubules promoting reabsorption of water from filtrate (urine)
229
Insulin/Glucagon
Regulate blood sugar levels
