Anat Final Endocrine + Sensory Flashcards
1
Q
What is the endocrine system
A
Group of glands that produce hormones
- works w nervous system to control and coordinate other body systems
2
Q
Chemical messengers that have specific regulatory effects on target cells within organs
A
Hormones
3
Q
Hormones are released from
A
Endocrine glands into blood (ductless)
4
Q
Hormones are very important for
A
Growth
metabolism
Reproduction
Behaviour
5
Q
What are the hormones affecting many tissues
A
Growth hormone
Thyroid hormone
Insulin
6
Q
What are hormones affecting a specific site
A
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
7
Q
What are the 2 categories of hormones
A
Amino acid compounds
Lipids
8
Q
Amino acids compounds consist of
A
Proteins
9
Q
Amino acid compounds are _____ hormones; bind to receptors on target cell membrane triggering a 2nd messenger to affect cell activities
A
Non steroid
10
Q
Lipids are made of ____
Lipids are ___ hormones; produced by the _____ and ______
A
Fatty acids; steroid hormones; produced by the adrenal cortex and sex glands
11
Q
Example of steroid hormones (lipids)
A
Testosterone
progesterone
12
Q
What are tightly regulated by homeostatic feedback, rhythmic patterns (daily or monthly) and other hormones
A
Blood levels are tightly regulated
13
Q
Negative feedback is an action that causes
A
A 2nd action that stops the first action
(Most common)
14
Q
Positive feedback
A
Hormone response produces more hormone
15
Q
The pituitary gland “hypophysis” is divided into
A
Anterior and posterior lobes
16
Q
In the anterior (adenohypophysis) lobe the hypothalamus sends
A
Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
17
Q
In the posterior (neurohypophysis) lobe hormones are not
A
Produced here they are stored (ADH and oxytocin)
18
Q
Hormones of the posterior lobe
A
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
19
Q
Antidiuretic hormone promotes what and stimulates what?
A
-Promotes the reabsorption of water from kidney tubules
-Stimulates construction of blood vessels
20
Q
Oxytocin causes
A
Uterine contractions and trigger milk release from the breasts
21
Q
Hormones of the anterior lobe(6)
A
- Growth hormone
- Thyroid stimulating hormone
- Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
- Prolactin
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Luteinizing hormone
22
Q
Gigantism refers to excessive growth due to
A
Over secretion of growth hormone in childhood
23
Q
Acromegaly is a condition caused by oversecretion of
A
Growth hormone in adults
24
Q
The thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland and produces 2 hormones that increase metabolism which are
A
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
25
Thyroid gland disorders: goiters
Enlargement of thyroid gland
26
Thyroiditis
Inflammation of thyroid
27
Hypothyroidism can occur at multiple stages of life for multiple reasons. 3 disorders are
Endemic goiter (lack of iodine in diet)
Congenital (@birth)
Hashimoto thyroiditis (autoimmune)
28
Hyperthyroidism is an overactive thyroid; what disorders are associated
Graves’ disease (inherited- bulging eyes)
Thyroid storm
29
There are 4 parathyroid glands located where?
What do they secrete ?
Behind thyroid gland embedded in its capsule or surrounding CT
-secretes parathyroid hormone
30
Parathyroid hormone increases
Blood calcium levels
31
Parathyroid hormone is produced when
Blood calcium is low
32
Parathyroid hormone stimulates the production of
Calcitriol
33
Hyposecretion- inadequate production of PTH results in low blood calcium concentration and is associated with
Tetany- series of muscle contractions
34
Adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. Each gland has two separate parts acting as separate glands. What are they
Medulla- inner area
Cortex- outer area
35
In the adrenal medulla, epinephrine is the main hormone. It is released in response to
Sympathetic nervous system
“Fight or flight” response
(Increased bp, heart rate)
36
What are the 3 groups of hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Androgens
37
Major hormone of glucocorticoids is
Cortisol
(Secretion of glucocorticoid quickly increases when body is thrown into a condition of stress)
38
What is the major hormone of moneralocorticoid group
Aldosterone
(Regulated electrolyte balances)
39
Virilization refers to
Appearance of male characteristics facial hair and premature balding
40
Androgens deal with
Make sex hormones
41
Disorders of adrenal cortex: Addison’s disease
Hypofunction of adrenal cortex; insufficient amount of hormones
-muscle atrophy/weakness, skin pigmentation, and disturbances in salt/water balance
42
Disorders of adrenal cortex: cushings a syndrome
Hypersecretion of cortisol
(Obesity, thin skin, muscle weakness, bone loss high blood sugar, high BP)
-women may experience virilization
43
The pancreas has 2 types of cells
Acini
Pancreatic islets
44
Acini is ____
Secretes ______ through ducts into small intestine
Exocrine
Digestive enzymes
45
Pancreatic islets are ____
Produce hormones one being?
Endocrine
Insulin
46
Glucagon (pancreas hormone) is produced by ____ cells in response to
Alpha cells; in response to low blood glucose levels
47
What is the most common endocrine disorder and what is it
Diabetes mellitus
Insulin deficiency
48
Hyperglycaemia
Too much glucose in the blood
49
Hyperlipidemia
High blood levels of fat (cholesterol)
50
Ketoacidosis
Ketones in blood
(Acidic)
(Confusion, coma, death)
51
What are the two types of diabetes mellitus
-Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
-Non insulin dependant diabetes mellitus
52
Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus is known as?
What does it result from?
Type 1 diabetes (formerly known as leveled diabetes)
Results from hyposecretion of insulin
LESS COMMON BUT MORE SEVERE
53
Non insulin dependant diabetes mellitus is known as
It is characterized by
Type II diabetes
Characterized by insulin resistance
54
Gestational diabetes is
Diabetes that develops during pregnancy
(Typically disappears after childbirth)
55
What is key to managing all diabetes
Maintaining Stable blood glucose levels by diet and exercise
56
Uncontrolled diabetes is associated with many long term complications including (4)
Abnormal fat metabolism
Damage to arteries
Damage to peripheral nerves
Decreased tissue repair
57
Management of type 1 diabetes
Insulin injections
Monitor blood sugar levels frequently
58
Management of type II diabetes
Monitor diet
Exercise
Oral medications “metformin”
59
Sex glands: testes produce what and what does it stimulate
Testosterone (androgen) which stimulates the growth and development of sex organs
60
Sex glands: ovaries produce and what does each do
Estrogen: stimulates growth of primary sexual organs, development of secondary sexual characteristics and ovarian follicles
-progesterone: prepares and maintains uterus for pregnancy
61
The pineal gland produces
Melatonin during dark periods (high levels at night)
62
What are prostaglandins
Group of hormone like substances made by most body tissues and derived from fatty acids
63
Prostaglandins are produced, act and are quickly inactivated ____
In or close to the site of origin
64
Prostaglandins control processes such as
Inflammation
Blood flow
Formation of blood clots
And induction of labour
65
Aging and the endocrine system: main clinical conditions
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Hypothyroidism
Osteoporosis
66
Sensory system stimulus is interpreted by the
Cerebral cortex
67
What are the parts of the nervous system that detect stimulus
Sensory receptors
68
Classification of sensory receptors is based on structure (3)
Free dendrite (pain or temp)
An end organ (touch or pressure)
Specialized cell (ex rods and cones of retina)
69
Sensory receptors functional classification based on
Type of stimulus to which they respond
70
Chemoreceptors
Detective chemicals in solutions (taste and smell)
71
Photoreceptors
Respond to light (located in retina)
72
Thermoreceptors
Detective changes in temp (located in skin)
73
Mechanoreceptors
Respond to movement
74
What is threshold stimulus
The intensity required for a receptor to respond and generate a nerve impulse
75
Sensory adaptation refers to
Sensations become less intense with continuous exposure
76
A special sense is
Localized in a special sense organ
(Vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium)
77
A general sense is
Widely distributed throughout the body (pressure, hot/cold, pain and touch, sense of position from muscles)
78
What forms the orbit of the eye and protect the dorsal part of the eyeball
Skull bones
79
Palpebra refers to
Eyelids which protect the front of the eye
(Blinking lubricates the eye)
80
What keeps foreign matter out of the eye
Eyelashes and eyebrows
81
Conjunctiva lines the
Eyelid and covers the sclera
(Secretes mucus)
82
What produces tears
Lacrimal gland
83
What washes tears away
Nasolacrimal duct
84
Extrinsic muscles of the eye do what
Move the eye so that both eyes center on one visual field
85
Sensory nerves of the eye: Optic nerve (CN II) receives
Visual information from the rods and cones to brain
86
Optic disk is free of
Receptors “blind spot”, point of exit
87
Sensory nerves of the eye: ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve carries impulses of
Pain, temperature, touch sensations from eye and its surroundings to brain
88
Motor nerves of the eye: carry impulses to the eye muscles (3)
Trochlear nerves (CN IV)
Abducens nerve (CN VI)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III), largest
89
What are the three separate coats or tunics of the eyes
Sclera
Choroid
Retina
90
What is refraction
Bending of light rays as they pass between substances of different densities
91
What are the 4 refractive parts of the eye
Cornea
Aqueous humor
Lens
Vitreous body
92
What is the main refracting structure of the eye
Cornea
(No blood vessels, transparent and colourless)
93
What is the aqueous humor
Watery fluid that fills eyeball anterior to lens
Permits passage of light
94
Crystalline lens “lens@ is a ____ clear circular structure. It has the ability to
Bioconvex; ability to change shape to permit near and far vision
95
What maintains the shape of the eyeball
Vitreous body
96
What is accommodation in reference to vision
Process of adjusting the lens thickness to allow for vision at near and far distances
97
Accommodation: contraction of the _____ removes the tension on the _____
Ciliary muscle; suspensory ligaments
98
Function of the iris
Regulates amount of light entering the eye
99
In the presence of bright light, the circular muscle fibers of the iris _____
Contract; reducing the size of the pupil
(CONSTRICTION)
100
If the light is dim the radial muscles ____ and the opening is pulled ____ and _____
Contract; outward: enlarged
(DILATION)
101
Structure of the retina: multiple layers from deepest to most superficial is
Pigmented layer
Rods and cones
Connecting neuron
102
Rods are
Photoreceptors that work best in dim light (detect shades of gray)
103
Night blindness (nyctalopia) results from lack of vitamin
Vitamin A
104
Cones function in
Bright light
(Located in the center of retina, especially in the fovea centralis)
105
Colour blindness results when
Lack of one or more types of cones
106
Red-green colour blindness
Can’t distinguish green from red
(Lacks green sensitive cones)
107
Hyperopia
Farsightedness
(Light rays focus behind the retina)
108
Myopia
Nearsightedness
109
Astigmatism
Caused by irregularity in the curvature of the cornea or lens
110
Presbyopia
Age related loss of elasticity in the lens; can’t see close up
111
Strabismis
The 2 eyes do not move together resulting from lack of coordination of the extrinsic eye muscles
(Can result in blindness)
112
Amblyopia
Loss of vision in a healthy eye because it cannot work properly with the other eye (lazy eye)
113
Infections of the eye: conjunctivitis (4)
-Pink eye (cocci or bacilli)
-Inclusion conjunctivitis (chronic infection from chlamydia)
-ophthalmia neonatorum (neonatal conjunctivitis)
Allergies
114
What is cataract
Opacity (cloudiness) of the lens or the outer covering of the lens
115
Glaucoma
Condition characterized by excess pressure of the aqueous humor
(Retinal degeneration, loss of peripheral vision initially)
116
The ear is a sense organ for both
Hearing and equilibrium
117
What are the three main components of the ear
Outer ear (pinna and a canal)
Middle ear (air space containing 3 small bones)
Inner ear (most complex)
118
External auditory canal (meatus) lining is thin and contains
Ceremonious glands, producing wax (cerumen)
119
The tympanic menbrane is at the end of the meatus it is aka the
Eardrum
Vibrates in response to sound waves (moves ossicles)
120
Middle ear contains three small bones called ossicles. What are they called
Malleus (first)
Incus (second)
Stapes (innermost bone shaped like a stirrup)
121
Eustscian tube is aka
Connects middle ear with throat, opens to ?
Auditory tube
Opens to equalize pressure
122
Function of inner ear
Hearing and equilibrium
123
Describe the structure of the inner ear
Bony labyrinth, outer wall, hollow skeleton
124
What is the inner ear filled with
Perilymph (fluid)
125
What are the 3 divisions of the inner ear
Vestibule (equilibrium)
Semicircular canal (equilibrium)
Cochlea (hearing)
126
The _____ is the organ of hearing within the cochlea, composed of _____ located inside the _____
Organ or corti; hair cells; cochlear duct
127
Sensory receptors within the vestibule and semicircular canals are ____ and deal with ____
Ciliated; equilibrium
128
2 types of equilibrium sensory receptors
Maculae (sense position of head relative to the force of gravity and acceleration)
Cristae (detect rotational acceleration)
129
Nerve supply to equilibrium sensory receptors via
Vestibular nerve
130
Vertigo
Abnormal sensation of spinning
131
Otitis externa is aka
Swimmers ear
Inflammation of the external auditory canal
132
Otitis media
Infection of middle ear
E.g pathogens from pharynx via auditory tube
133
Hearing loss 2 types
Sensorineural hearing loss (damage to auditory nerves or cochlea)
Conductive hearing loss (blockage of sound to inner ear)
134
Sense of taste aka
Gustation
135
Sense of taste involves receptors in the tongue and two different nerves which are
Facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves
136
Most taste buds are located at the back of the tongue
Circumvallete papillae
137
Sense of smell; what kind of receptors and where are they located
Olfactory receptors
Located in olfactory epithelium of the upper part of nasal cavity
138
Olfactory receptors deteriorate with
Age
139
Innervation of olfactory factory receptors
Olfactory CN
140
Sense of touch receptors
Receptors tactile corpuscles: “meissners” corpuscle
141
Sense of pressure
Pacinian corpuscle
142
Thermocepters deal with sense of temperature. They are ______ widely distributed in the ____
Free nerve endings; skin
143
Receptors located in ____, ____ and ____ that relay impulses that aid in judging ones position
Muscles, tendons, joints
“Proprioceptors”
144
Pain receptors are?
Free nerve endings
“Nociceptors”
145
There are 2 pathways of pain to the CNS which are
1. One for sharp pain
2. One for slow chronic pain
146
Methods of pain relief
Analgesic drugs
Anaesthetics
Endorphins
Application of heat or cold
Relaxation
147
What are the 2 main categories of analgesic drugs
Non narcotic analgesics (act locally)
Narcotics (act on CNS)
