Alexander II Flashcards
Military- Pre-reform situation
Archaic, Crimean War showcased incompetence of conscripted serf army (hundreds of thousands lost at Sevastopol), could not compete against West, lack of modern artillery. Poor leadership- generals chosen by loyalty over quality. Enlistment- uneducated, untrained serfs selected by landowners, often as punishment, for 25 years, legally presumed dead, children sent to orphanage. Military treatment barbaric- recruits often flogged and beaten, ex-military personnel often poor, no land, skills or family
Military- Reforms
Miliutin- Minister of War, introduced reforms. Abolition of severe military punishment, reduced conscription to 16 years, replacement of new weapons, more technical officer training and education, more military responsibility given to generals. 1874- all Russian men eligible for military, recruits served six years, no longer a punishment, Russia now a formidable fighting force
Military Reforms Evaluation
Highly successful, thanks to Miliutin. Delay in conscription reform due to nobility, Russia still geographically and politically weak, takes time to develop effective military, could not risk another major war
Local Government- Pre-Reforms
Society dominated by autocracy and nobility, who exercised justice in their localities, but new institutions required, a willingness to act post-emancipation. Big issue- should nobility be allowed pre-eminence in local government or not- oligarchs vs democrats
Local Government- Reforms
Zemstvos set up in 1864 as a district council in villages, Dumas the equivalent in towns and cities (1870). Village life organised by peasant Mir. Z&D memberships decided by elections from nobility, townsmen and peasants, nobility allowed to elect the most members, just short of a majority- retained local political influence. Presidents of committees elected subject to confirmation by provincial government- more appeasement for oligarchs. District and town councils elected representatives for zemstvos- many landowners retained pre-emancipation political influence, Z&D given control over education, healthcare and prisons, but not taxation- also governed by former landowners.
Local Government Reforms Evaluation
Overall successful- step forward for peasantry and democracy, but oligarchs won in many areas, political and social influence of former serf owners stayed potent
Legal System- Pre-Reforms
Bribery and corruption rife, proceedings took place in private, judges aligned with government and nobility, evidence withheld, defendants often intimidated and manipulated by overcomplicated procedures
Legal Reforms
Westernised system, public trials, introduction of jury, Justices of the Peace, procedures simplified, new courts opened 1866, which were very popular, bribery decreased, some judges even favoured the poor. Reforms not equal universally (no jury in Poland), lack of trained lawyers
Legal Reforms Evaluation
Big step forward in minimising corruption and intimidation. Not completely universally effective, but definitely an unprecedented Westernised upgrade
Education- Pre-Reforms
Backward-looking, focus on religious teaching, run by Holy Synod and Orthodox Church, secondary education dominated by nobility, university limited in access and in subjects, studying abroad forbidden
Education Reforms
Golovnin- Minister of Education. All new schools run by Ministry of Education, progressive subjects introduced, secondary education opened up to all, ended noble monopolisation in 1864, huge growth in funding- 8k elementary schools in 1856 to 23k in 1880, foreign study legalised and encouraged. Some academia still controlled by the state
Education Reforms Evaluation
Huge success in education reform, more freedom and room for growth- state influence remains, significant progress made nonetheless
Economic Reforms- Foreign Investment
Hughes- ironworks in Ukraine. LUDWIG KNOOP- Textiles. Factories owned by British, French played large role
Economic Reforms- Railways
1600 km in 1861 to 22000 in1878. Fourfold increase in traffic, 1865-75. Price inequalities fell, stimulated internal market, urbanisation, industrialism.
Economic Reforms- Reutern
Introduced public accounting, minimised corruption, increased efficiency. Struggled to maintain stability of rouble, westernised economy, created unified Treasury, centralised accounts, improved taxation. Credit institutions- huge increase in number of banks. Arguably only caught up with where they should have been anyway
