A&P Final Study Guide Flashcards
Anatomical position is when the person is ___ with the feet ___ on the floor, arms ___ and palms and face directed ___.
Anatomical position is when the person is STANDING UPRIGHT with the feet FLAT on the floor, arms AT THE SIDES and palms and face directed FORWARD.
Identify and name the 3 planes of the body
- Frontal - divides body anterior and posterior
- Transverse - divides body into superior and inferior
- Sagittal- divides body into equal left and right
Define
Reductionism vs Holism
Reductionism is the theory that a ___ complex ___ such as the ___ can be ___ by studying its ___ whereas holism is the theory that “___ properties” of the ___ organism ___ be predicted from properties of ___ (humans are more than ___)
Reductionism vs Holism
Reductionism is the theory that a LARGE complex SYSTEM such as the HUMAN BODY can be UNDERSTOOD by studying its SIMPLER COMPONENTS whereas holism is the theory that “EMERGENT properties” of the WHOLE organism CANNOT be predicted from properties of SEPARATE PARTS (humans are more than THE SUM OF THEIR PARTS)
Andreas Vesalius
- ___ and ___ considered “kindred ___ of the ___”
- Published first ___ of ___, de humani ___ fabrica
- Vesalius broke from tradition by coming down from the ___ and doing ___ himself
Andreas Vesalius
- BARBERING and SURGERY considered “kindred ARTS of the KNIFE”
- Published first ATLAS of ANATOMY, de humani CORPORIS fabrica
- Vesalius broke from tradition by coming down from the CATHEDRA and doing DISSECTIONS himself
Homeostasis and Negative Feedback
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively ___ conditions through detection of ___ and activation of ___ to ___ it (self-___)
- loss of homeostatic control = ___
Homeostasis and Negative Feedback
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively STABLE INTERNAL conditions through detection of CHANGE and activation of MECHANISMS to OPPOSE it (self-RESTORATION)
- loss of homeostatic control = ILLNESS OR DEATH
Negative Feedback
- Homeostasis is ___ by negative feedback
- ___ invokes mechanism to ___
- ex) ___ and ___
Negative Feedback
- Homeostasis is MAINTAINED by negative feedback
- VARIANCE invokes mechanism to RETURN
- ex) VASOCONSTRICTION and VASODILATION
Name and describe the 3 components of negative feedback
- Receptor - detects change
- Integration Center - figures out what needs to be done
- Effector - carries out what needs to be done
Define
- electrolytes
- free radicals
- antioxidants
Define
- electrolytes - salts that ionize in water, capable of conducting electric current
- free radicals - chemical particles with odd number of electrons
- antioxidants - chemical that neutralizes free radicals
pH
pH 7.0 = ___
pH < 7 = ___
pH > 7 = ___
What pH level is high and low?
pH
pH 7.0 = NEUTRAL
pH < 7 = ACIDIC
pH > 7 = BASIC
What pH level is high and low?
low = acidic & high = basic
Properties of Water
Name the properties of water
- Solvency
- Thermal stability
- Adhesion
- Cohesion
- Chemical reactivity
Compare and Contrast
anabolism vs catabolism
Compare and Contrast
anabolism vs catabolism
- anabolism produces energy-storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions, requires energy input, and produces large molecules (protein or fat)
whereas
- catabolism produces energy-releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions, requires energy input, and products smaller molecules
Compare and Contrast
synthesis vs decomposition
Compare and Contrast
synthesis vs decomposition
- synthesis is when 2 or more small molecules combine to form a larger one
whereas
- decomposition is when a large molecule breaks down into 2 or more smaller ones
General Properties of Carbohydrates
What are general properties of carbohydrates? Name an example.
General Properties of Carbohydrates
What are general properties of carbohydrates? Name an example.
- solubility
- used in body for energy
- ex) sucrose
General Properties of Proteins
What are general properties of proteins? Name an example.
General Properties of Proteins
What are general properties of proteins? Name an example.
- denaturation (loss of structure - can’t go back, think of cooked eggs)
- contraction/movement
- cell-adhesion
- ex) collagen
General Properties of Lipids
What are general properties of lipids? Name an example.
General Properties of Lipids
What are general properties of lipids? Name an example.
- amphipilic
- ex) amino acids
General Properties of Nucleic Acids
What are general properties of nucleic acid? Name an example.
General Properties of Nucleic Acids
What are general properties of nucleic acid? Name an example.
- ATP
- ex) DNA and RNA
Components of Cellular Membrane
What are the chief components of a cellular membrane?
Components of Cellular Membrane
What are the chief components of a cellular membrane?
proteins and lipids
Osmosis vs Diffusion
What’s the difference between osmosis and diffusion?
Osmosis vs Diffusion
What’s the difference between osmosis and diffusion?
- osmosis is flow of water from side with more water to side to less water
whereas
- diffusion is movement of particles from high to low concentration (movement down the concentration gradient)
Membrane Transport
What are the basic types of membrane transport? Which ones require ATP?
Membrane Transport
What are the basic types of membrane transport? Which ones require ATP?
- Passive (no ATP) = filtration, simple diffusion, carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
- Active (ATP required) = carrier mediated (active) transport, vesicular transport
Major Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
List the major cellular organelles and their functions
Major Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
List the major cellular organelles and their functions
- nucleus - controls cellular function
- rough endoplasmic reticulum - protein synthesis
- smooth endoplasmic reticulum - steroid (+ other lipids) synthesis
- ribosomes - “read” coded genetic messages and assemble amino acids into proteins
- golgi complex - synthesize carbohydrates and modifies proteins
- lysosomes - autolysis (cell-suicide)
- peroxisomes - neutralize free radicals, break down fatty acids
- mitochondria - synthesize ATP
- centrioles - form basal body of cilium or flagellum
DNA structure Base Pairs
In DNA structure, which base pairs with which?
DNA structure Base Pairs
In DNA structure, which base pairs with which?
A with T ——— C with G
Define
Define/compare and contrast transcription vs translation
Define
Define/compare and contrast transcription vs translation
- transcription is copying instructions from DNA to RNA
whereas
- translation is converting language of nucleotides into language of amino acids
Phases of a Cell
Name the phases of a cell and what happens in each
Phases of a Cell
Name the phases of a cell and what happens in each
- Prophase - chromosomes condense and nuclear envelope breaks down
- Metaphase - chromosomes lie along midline of cell
- Anaphase - centromeres divide and sister chromatids move to opposite poles of cell
- Telophase - spindle fibers break down, nuclear envelope reforms
Define
- allele
- dominant
- recessive
- genotype
- phenotype
Define
- allele - variation of a gene
- dominant - allele that’s expressed (can see)
- recessive - allele expressed only in a homozygous combo with itself (no dominant present)
- genotype - genetic makeup or allele combination
- phenotype - organism’s physical appearance
Basic Types of Tissues
What are the basic types of tissues and their features?
Basic Types of Tissues
What are the basic types of tissues and their features?
- Muscular - elongated cells
- Epithelial - closely adhering cells, covers surfaces and lines cavities, avascular
- Nervous - consists of neuron, dendrites, axon, neurosoma
- Connective - fibrous proteins and ground substance
Exocrine gland vs Endocrine Gland
What’s the difference between an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland?
Exocrine gland vs Endocrine Gland
What’s the difference between an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland?
- exocrine glands release material by way of duct (sweat, mammary, and tear glands)
whereas
- with endocrine glands, secretions go directly into blood (secretions= hormones - thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary)
Mucous Membrane vs. Serous Membrane
What’s the difference between a mucous membrane and a serous membrane?
Mucous Membrane vs. Serous Membrane
What’s the difference between a mucous membrane and a serous membrane?
- mucous membrane is an internal membrane that lines passages that open to exterior environment
whereas
- serous membranes are internal membranes that cover organs and line walls of body cavities
Define
- hypertrophy
- hyperplasia
- neoplasia
- necrosis
Define
- hypertrophy - enlargement of preexisting cells
- hyperplasia - tissue growth through cell multiplication
- neoplasia - development of a tumor (neoplasm)
- necrosis - premature, pathological death of tissue due to trauma, toxins, or infections
Skin Color Abnormalities
Name and define some skin color abnormalities
Skin Color Abnormalities
Name and define some skin color abnormalities
- cyanosis - blueness from deficiency of oxygen in blood
- erythema - redness from dilated cutaneous vessels (anger, sunburn, embarrassment)
- jaundice - yellowing of skin from excess bilirubin in blood
- bronzing - golden-brown color - deficiency of glucocorticoid hormone (Addison disease)
- pallor - pale color from lack of blood flow (fear)
- hematoma - a bruise (visible clot)
Apocrine Sweat Glands vs. Merocrine Sweat Glands
What are the key differences between apocrine sweat glands and merocrine sweat glands?
Apocrine Sweat Glands vs. Merocrine Sweat Glands
What are the key differences between apocrine sweat glands and merocrine sweat glands?
- apocrine sweat glands are usually simple cuboidal epithelial cells whereas merocrine sweat glands are usually stratified epithelial cells
- aprocrine sweat glands are located in goin, anal region, axilla, areola, beards whereas merocrine glands go straight to surface of skin (found all over body)
Squamous Cell Carcinoma vs. Basal Cell Carcinoma
What are the key differences between squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma?
Squamous Cell Carcinoma vs. Basal Cell Carcinoma
What are the key differences between squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma?
- squamous cell carcinoma tends to metastisize (may become lethal) whereas basal cell carcinoma seldom metastisizes (least dangerous)
- squamous cell carcinoma forms in stratum spinosum whereas basal cell carcinoma forms in stratum basale
What factors determine degree of burns?
What factors determine degree of burns?
- thickness of burn
- depth - what part of dermis and epidermis is involved
Role of Osteoblast vs. Osteoclast
What are the roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
Role of Osteoblast vs. Osteoclast
What are the roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
osteoblasts are bone-building cells whereas osteoclasts are bone-dissolving cells
Intramembranous vs. Cartilaginous ossification
What are the key differences between intramembranous ossification and cartilaginous ossification?
Intramembranous vs. Cartilaginous ossification
What are the key differences between intramembranous ossification and cartilaginous ossification?
- intramembranous ossification develop from embryonic tissue and forms flat bones of skull and clavicle (and part of mandible)
whereas
- endochondral ossification develops from a preexisting model of composed of hyaline cartilage (and perichondrium) and forms the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, scapula, pelvic girdle, and bones of the limbs
Calcitriol, Calcitonin, & PTH
calcium homeostasis is regulated by these 3 hormones
Which raises/which lowers blood levels of calcium?
Calcitriol, Calcitonin, & PTH
calcium homeostasis is regulated by these 3 hormones
Which raises/which lowers blood levels of calcium?
- calcitriol - RAISES blood levels of calcium
- calcitonin - LOWERS blood levels of calcium
- PTH - RAISES blood levels of calcium
Osteoporosis Prevention
What is the best way to prevent osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis Prevention
What is the best way to prevent osteoporosis?
- exercise and good bone-building diet between ages of 25 & 40
Male & Female Pelvises
What is the difference between male and female pelvises?
Male & Female Pelvises
What is the difference between male and female pelvises?
- male pelvises = heavier, narrow subpubic angle/arch, pelvic inlet is heart-shaped
whereas
- female pelvises = lighter, wide subpubic angle/arch, pelvic inlet round or oval
Synovial Joints
What are the general features of synovial joints?
Synovial Joints
What are the general features of synovial joints?
- freely moveable
- articular capsule encloses joint cavity
- articular cartilage = hyaline cartilage covering joint surfaces
- lined by synovial membrane
- synovial fluid = slippery fluid; feeds cartilages
Mechanical Advantage in Lever Systems
What is the mechanical advantage in lever systems: how does the number relate to action?
Mechanical Advantage in Lever Systems
Mechanical advantage in lever systems: how does the number relate to action?
MA > 1.0 = lever produces more force but less speed and distance
MA < 1.0 = lever produces more speed or distance but less force
Common Joint Surgeries
Name joint where they occur
- rotator cuff
- ACL
- Tommy John
Common Joint Surgeries
Name joint where they occur
- rotator cuff = shoulder joint
- ACL = knee joint
- Tommy John = elbow joint
Major Shapes of Muscles
What are the 6 major shapes of muscles?
Major Shapes of Muscles
What are the 7 major shapes of muscles?
- Unipennate
- Bipennate
- Multipennate
- Triangular
- Circle
- Parallel
- Fusiform
Define
- prime mover
- synergist
- antagonist
Define
- prime mover = produces most of force
- synergist = aids prime mover, stabilizes nearby joint, modifies direction of movement
- antagonist = opposes prime mover, prevents excessive movement and injury
Basics of Muscle Contraction
How does it start?
How does it spread?
Which filament grabs which?
Which ion is key?
Basics of Muscle Contraction
How does it start? Electrical signal comes down axon of nerve stimulating muscle fiber
How does it spread? Through each depolarization and repolarization across muscle membrane (domino effect)
Which filament grabs which? Myosin heads grab actin filaments
Which ion is key? Calcium
Define
- sarcomere
- twitch
- tetany
- isometric vs. isotonic contraction
Define
- sarcomere - segment of myofibril from z disc to z disc
- twitch - quick cycle of contraction/relaxation when stimulus at threshold or higher
- tetany - inability of the muscles to relax
- isometric vs. isotonic contraction - isometric develops tension without changing length whereas isotonic changes in length with no change in tension
Fast Glycolytic and Slow-Oxidative Muscles
Which sports/activities requires more fast-glycolytic muscles? Slow-oxidative?
Fast Glycolytic and Slow-Oxidative Muscles
Which sports/activities requires more fast-glycolytic muscles? Slow-oxidative?
- fast-glycolytic = jumping
- slow-oxidative = jogging
Define
- RMP
- local potential
- action potential
- depolarization
Define
- RMP - potential difference in charge between the inside and outside of a cell at rest
- local potential - small change in membrane
- action potential - dramatic change in membrane
- depolarization - change in the membrane potential so that it is closer to zero (less negative)
Myelination
What is the purpose of myelination? Which glial cells do it? Where?
purpose =
glial cells & where =
Myelination
What is the purpose of myelination? Which glial cells do it? Where?
purpose = insulate axon and make neural signals faster
glial cells & where = oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS
Temporal vs. Spatial Summation
What’s the difference between temporal and spatial summation?
Temporal vs. Spatial Summation
What’s the difference between temporal and spatial summation?
- temporal summation is where a single synapse receives many EPSPs in a short time
whereas
- spatial summation is where a single synapse recieves many EPSPs from many cells
Sensory vs Motor
Sensory = incoming, afferent, through dorsal root.
Do same for motor.
Motor =
Sensory vs Motor
Sensory = incoming, afferent, through dorsal root.
Do same for motor.
Motor = outgoing, efferent, though ventral root
Define
- cauda equina
- medullary cone
- dermatome
Define
- cauda equina - horse’s tail; L2-S5 nerve roots
- medullary cone - tappered tip of spinal cord
- dermatome - area of skin that recieves sensory input from pair of spinal nerves
Anterior Ramus (of Spinal Nerve) vs. Posterior Ramus
What’s the difference between the anterior ramus (of spinal nerve) and the posterior ramus?
Anterior Ramus (of Spinal Nerve) vs. Posterior Ramus
What’s the difference between the anterior ramus (of spinal nerve) and the posterior ramus?
- anterior ramus supplies ventral skin, muscles, and limbs (bigger and goes to more places)
whereas
- posterior ramus supplies dorsal body muscle and skin
Cuneate Fasciculus vs. Spinothalamic Tract
Which sensations are carried on which?
- cuneate fasciculus =
- spinothalamic tract =
Cuneate Fasciculus vs. Spinothalamic Tract
Which sensations are carried on which?
- cuneate fasciculus = carries sensations from chest and upper limbs
- spinothalamic tract = carries signals for pain, temperature, pressure, tickle, itch, and light touch
Processes in Lobes of Brain
Which processes occur in which lobe of brain?
Processes in Lobes of Brain
Which processes occur in which lobe of brain?
- Frontal - voluntary motor, social judgement
- Insula - taste, pain
- Temporal - hearing, memory, smell
- Occipital - vision
- Parietal - sensory info
Primary Functions vs. Association Functions
What’s the difference between primary functions and association functions?
Primary Functions vs. Association Functions
What’s the difference between primary functions and association functions?
- primary functions are sites where sensory input is first recieved (awareness of stimulus)
whereas
- association areas are nearby sensory areas that process and interpret sensory info
Major Functions
- cerebellum
- hippocampus
- reticular formation
- hypothalamus
Major Functions
- cerebellum - motor coordination, evaluation of sensory input, predicting movements of objects, planning and remembering tasks
- hippocampus - organizes sensory and cognitive information into new memory, consolidates but doesn’t store
- reticular formation - regulates balance and posture, gaze centers, cardiovascular control, pain modulation, sleep and consciousness, habituation
- hypothalamus - autonomic functions and homeostasis (heart rate, BP, thermoregulation, sleep/wake, memory and emotions)
Broca’s vs. Wernicke’s Area
What’s the difference between Broca’s and Wernicke’s area?
Broca’s vs. Wernicke’s Area
What’s the difference between Broca’s and Wernicke’s area?
- Broca’s area (talking) generates motor program for larynx, tongue, checks, and lips (coordinates movements required for speech)
whereas
- Wernicke’s area (listening) permits recognition of spoken and written language; creates plan of speech
Right Brain vs Left Brain
What’s the difference between the right and left brain?
Right Brain vs Left Brain
What’s the difference between the right and left brain?
- right brain is representational = holistic perception, imagination and insight, musical and artistic skill, perception of patterns and spatial relationships
whereas
- left brain is categorical = language, linear analysis, analytical thinking (math and science)
Cranial Nerves
Name the cranial nerves, functions, and result of damage
Cranial Nerves
Name the cranial nerves, functions, and result of damage
- I - Olfactory = smell - impaired sense of smell
- II - Optic = vision - blindness in part or all of visual field
- III - Oculomotor = eye movement (opening eyelid, constricting pupil, focusing) - drooping eyelid, dilated pupil, double vision
- IV - Trochlear = eye movement (superior oblique muscle) - double vision, inability to rotate eye infrolaterally
- V - Trigeminal = sensation of face, muscles of mastication - loss of sensation, difficulty chewing
- VI - Abducens = eye movement (lateral) - inability to rotate eye laterally
- VII - Facial = motor, facial muscle movement (expressions), salivary glands, tear, nasal, and palatine glands and sensory (taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue) - sagging facial muscles, disturbed sense of taste (sweet/salty)
- VIII - Vestibulocochlear = hearing and equilibrium - deafness, dizziness, nausea, loss of balance
- IX - Glossopharyngeal = swallowing, salivation, gagging, control of BP and respiration, taste in posterior 1/3 of tongue - loss of bitter and sour taste, impaired swallowing
- X - Vagus = swallowing, speech - hoarseness or loss of voice, impaired swallowing (fatal if both are cut)
- XI - Accessory = head, neck, and shoulder movement - impaired head, neck, and shoulder movement (head turns toward injured side)
- XII - Hypoglossal = tongue movements for speech, food manipulation, and swallowing - both= cannot protrude tongue… one side= tongue deviates towards injured side
