2-motivation Flashcards
how do psychologists organize motivation
- regulatory vs purposive (internal vs external)
- habit vs goal-directed
- model-free vs model-based (choose bc of acquired value of something vs guess outcomes and choose behaviours)
- seeking appetitive outcomes vs avoiding aversive outcomes
- preference vs persistence vs vigour
- averages vs individual differences
instinct
exhibit behaviours, often complex behaviours without any learning
often refer to these as “hardwired”, “genetic”, or “instinctual”
from biological perspective is a species-specific pattern of behaviour that is not learned
James definition of instinct
faculty of acting in such a way as to produce a certain end without foresight of that end, and without eh individual’s having previous education in that performance
4 criteria of instinct according to tinbergen
- stereotyped (pattern)
- characteristic
- in isolation
- without practice
problems with the concept of instinct
it has CIRCULAR REASONING
- not falsifiable
- not experimental
- not many insights gained
tabula rasa
the BLANK SLATE
- behaviourism
- environment plays a critical role
theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perceptio
instinctive drift
after a while of no operant conditioning, conditioned animals would revert to normal animal-specific behaviours
opposes the idea of the blank slate
solution to this? just stick to what these animals are inclined to do!
modern concept of instinct
- constrained to very simple behaviours (reflex)
- more common in (neurobiologically) simpler life
- think more in terms of species-specific behaviours that aren’t strictly “hardwired” (simply predisposed to specific behaviours)
supernormal stimuli
external stimuli that causes an extra vigorous response for species-specific behaviours
species-specific behaviours can be released by…
external stimuli
why do species-specific behaviours make evolutionary sense
- preparedness
- imprinting
what manifests species-specific behaviours?
species-specific nervous system
drive-reduction theory
motivates one to return to HOMEOSTASIS
Hull’s drive theory
- Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs
- Emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behaviour response in which we engage
E = H x D
E= excitatory potential
H = habit
D = drive
drive believe to energize all responses equally
response most strongly associated with present stimuli will occur
predictions/implications of Hull’s thoery
- increase in H or D will energize multiple responses
- increase in D is punishing, decrease is reinforcing
simple/well-learned response situation: clear dominant response
complex/little-learned response situation: multiple competing responses
irrelevant drives will interfere with goal-relavant behavior!
testing Hull’s theory: does increased drive increase all behaviours?
probably not
food/water deprivation: increases many but not all activity, and not to the same level
conditioned activity experiments effectively contradict this implication of Hull’s theory
testing hull’s theory: overall excitatory potential? I.e. is a hunger rat more motivated
yeaaahhhhh but probably not as hull predicted
hungrier animals increase E (motivation), but only for food
animals display GOAL-RELATED, not reflexive/drive behaviour!
testing hull’s theory: does a behaviour truly reflect a drive, a reflexive response to a need
probably not
rats can be motivated on appropriate days, even if it doesn’t reflect their current drives
reminiscent of state-dependent memory
verdict on Hull’s theory
- we do act sometimes as though we are working to reduce a drive buuuuut
- drives don’t energize all behaviours
- our behaviour is contingent upon learning
- behaviour often has a goal-directed quality to it
activation theory
- motivation is determined by level of arousal
- similar to drive theory, it’s an “energization” of behaviour without direction
- but… unlike drive theory, it’s derived from physical basis – reticular activation system
the reticular activating system
AKA reticular formation
- wakefulness, arousal, sleep, consciousness
- Coma and anaesthetics affect RAS
Yerkes-Dodson curve
optimal levels of arousal
simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower
the inverted U!!! there is a point where the amount of pressure will make highest performance!!
but…. low pressure = boredom and low performance
tooo high pressure = high stress, anxiety, unhappiness
is well-replicated
we’re all sitting at different baselines though
how to test yerkes-dodson curve
test arousal level with DROGS
the less stimulating, the more stress you can handle before concentration drops out
motor impulsivity
“action without foresight”
like when you accidentally start running before the gun goes pew
choice impulsivity
small immediate reward vs larger later reward
Easterbrook hypothesis
arousal reduces range of cues that an organism attends to
so arousal NARROWS ATTENTION
basically why arousal changes our performance
the modern Yerkes-Dodson and Easterbrook: Amy Arnsten
as arousal goes up, more catecholamines are released into the prefrontal cortex
at low arousal, the PFC fires for everything
at high arousal, it shuts down
there is a SWEET SPOT between arousal and catecholamines
ADHD
KEY SYMPTOMS:
- extreme inattention
- hyperactivity
- impulsivity
- 11% of American 4- to 17- year-olds receive this diagnosis after displaying key symptoms
- psychostimulants (amphetamine, methylphenidate) improve symptoms
- hypothesis: ADHD driven by low dopamine function, so they have a low baseline arousal
- stress and arousal focus your attention, so lack thereof makes you unable to focus or focus on too much
ludic behaviour
- things we look for but does not have any biological benefit
- recreational activity
we seek:
- novelty
- uncertainty
- conflict
- complexity
a hierarchy of needs
Maslow
- wasn’t based on evidence
- later evidence to support concepts, but not necessarily the overall idea (may not always need to satisfy all lower needs)
physiology of hunger drive theory
“humans automatically regulate caloric intake through a homeostatic system to prevent energy deficits and maintain stable body weight”
- drive theory!
- but… not well supported
set point theory (physiology of obesity) the two types
GLUCOSTATIC
- maintain blood sugar levels
- short term
LIPOSTATIC
- body fat levels
- as they go up and down, it will influence your hunger and eating
basal metabolic rate
- amount of energy body uses when sitting
- baseline for energy used
- but… hard to measure
- best way to measure is CO2 person breathing out
- metabolism also does not change past 20, only after 60+ –> cannot be explained by basal metabolic rate
BLOOD GLUCOSE – physiology of hunger
- dips before a meal… incites seeking of food?
- triggers hunger
- but…. if you don’t eat, blood sugar goes back up
- food does not satisfy blood sugar!!
-blood sugar dipping may be body PREPARING for food
HYPOTHALAMUS – physiology of hunger
arcuate nucleus triggers hormone release, which theorizes that’ll cause eating and not eating, suppress appetite
the appetite hormones
- insulin
- leptin
- PYY
- Ghrelin
- Orexin
insulin
- pancreas
- trigger storage of glucose as fats
- not for hunger, but affects blood sugar
leptin
- released from fat cells at baseline rate
- more fat cells? more leptin
- appetite suppressing affect
- SATIETY signal!!
PYY
- SATIETY signal
- sent from viscera (intestines)
- how full or empty guts are
- drive theory!!
ghrelin
- APPETITE hormone
- sent from stomach when its empty
orexin
- APPETITE
- sent from brain
- causes hunger
taste preferences: psychology of hunger
- believes that body knows what it needs…
- true to an extent!! because junk food. yummy
- body chemistry
- environmental factors
- biology
situational influences on eating
- tempting situations
- friends and food
- serving size is significant
- food variety
social bonds and cooperation enhanced…
early ancestors’ survivability
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
- process pain
- lights up when you’re being socially isolated
impact of mobile networks and social media on people
- people are using it a loootttt more
- though people are less social irl, it actually leads to STRONGER bonds
- healthy self-disclosure sometimes
- accurate personality reflections in profiles and posts
INTRINSIC
arising from internal factors
EXTRINSIC
arising from external factors
- Overjustification effect
– intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given
Can lead to extinguishing intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance
self-efficacy
individual’s belief int heir own capability to complete a task
- Bandura argues that motivaiton derives from expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviours
- Motives: needs for achievement, affiliation, intimacy
metabolic rate
amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time
- lots of individual variability!!
set-point theory
each individual has an ideal body weight (set point) which is resistant to change
○ Genetically predetermined
○ Efforts to move our weight significantly from the set-point are resisted by compensatory changes in energy intake and/or expenditure
But… some predictions has no empirical support
Morbid obesity
so overweight that they are at risk for death
BMI’d value as an assessment tool?
has been questioned
○ Most useful for studying populations
○ Less useful in assessing an individual
§ Fail to account for things like fitness and muscle
Cause of overweightness/obesity
○ Genes and environment
○ Consuming more calories than is expended
○ Socioeconomic status and the physical environment
Bariatiric surgery
weight reduction, modifying gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed
○ cases in which a person has had no success with repeated attempts to reduce weight/at risk for death because of obesity
Prader-Willi syndrome
genetic disorder that results in persistent feelings of intense hunger and reduced rates of metabolism
Bulimia nervosa
binge eating behaviour that is followed by attempt to compensate for the large amount of food consumed
○ Vomiting or laxatives or excessive exercise
○ Many adverse health conditions
Binge eating disorder
eating binges are not followed by inappropriator behaviour such as purging, but are followed by distress, inclusing feelings of guilt and embarassment
Anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below agerage through starvation and/or excessive exercise
○ Often have a distorted body image (body dysmorphia)
research on sex before the late 1940s
- Before the late 1940s, limited access to reliable, empirically-based information on lex
- Physicians were considered authorities on all issues related to sex, despite the fact that they had little to no training in these issues
- Most of what people knew about it had been learned either through their own experiences or by talking with their peers
kinsey scale
○ Used to categorize an individual’s sexual orientation
MASTERS AND JOHNSON’S RESEARCH
- OBSERVED people having intercourse in a variety of positions
- Also observed people masturbating
○ Manually or with the aid of a device - As this happened, researchers recorded measurements of physiological variables
○ Blood pressure
○ Respiration rate
○ Measurements of sexual arousal
§ Vaginal lubrication
§ Penile tumescence - sexual response cycle
sexual response cycle
- excitement
- plateau
- orgasm
- resolution
refractory period
- EXCITEMENT
a. Arousal phase
b. Erection of the penis or clitoris
Lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal
plateau
a. Vagina swells further
b. Blood flow to the labia minora increases
c. Penis becomes fully erect, may exhibit pre-ejaculatory fluid
Increases in muscle tone
- ORGASM
a. Females – rhythmic contractions of the pelvis and uterus along with increases muscle tension
b. Males – pelvic contractions are accompanies by a buildup of seminal fluid near the urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital muscles
i. Ejaculation
- RESOLUTION
a. Relatively rapid return to an unaroused state accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation
- REFRACTORY PERIOD
○ Period of time that follows an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm
○ Vary dramatically from individual to individual
As people age, tends to span larger periods of time
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Emotional, romantic, and erotic attraction toward other people or no people
- For many years, ppl thought that this happened because of different socialization and familial experiences
○ BUT NO, RESEARCH SAYS NO - Research evidence suggests that sexual orientation has an underlying biological component
○ Gene-level contributions!
§ Account for at least half of the variability
○ Differences in brain structure and function
○ Differences in basic body structure and function
Queer
umbrella term used to describe sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression
MISUNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SEXUAL ORIENTATION
- It is NOT a choice, but a relatively stable characteristic of a person that cannot be changes
- Conversion therapy
○ Wide criticism from the research community
○ Ineffective
○ Potentially harmful
GENDER IDENTITY
One’s sense of being male, female, neither of these, both of these, or another gender
Gender dysphoria
diagnostic category, describes individuals who do not identify as the gender that most people would assume they are
- Must persist for 6 months and result in significant distress or dysfunction to meet DSM-5 diagostic criteria
- Not all trans people experience this!!
- Diagnostic categorization not universally accepted
Social transition
person’s presentation, name, pronouns, relationships
Legal transition
changing their gender on government or other official docs, changing their legal nae, and so on
Physical medical transition
change their outward, physical, or sexual characteristics in order for their physical being to better align with their gender identity
Cross-dressing
form of self-expression or personal style, does not indicate a person’s gender identity or that they are trans
Intersex
general term to describe people whose sex traits, reproductive anatomy, hormones, or chromosomes are different from the usual two ways human bodies develop
○ Some of these traits are recognized at birth, others not till puberty or later in life
catecholamine
dopamine
noepinepherine/noadrenaline
