x A&P 1/2 (1-5) Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomy
A
study and structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
2
Q
Physiology
A
study of the function of body’s structural machinery
3
Q
Cytology
A
study of the cell
4
Q
Histology
A
study of tissues
5
Q
Embryology
A
study of developmental changes of the body before birth
6
Q
Pathological anatomy
A
study of structural changes caused by disease
7
Q
Molecular Biology
A
study of anatomical structures at sub cellular level
8
Q
Principle of Complementarity
A
-function always reflects structure -what a structure can do, depends on it’s specific form
9
Q
Anatomical Position
A
Body erect, feet slight apart, palm facing forwards, thumbs point away from body
10
Q
Superior (cranial) /Inferior (caudal)
A
towards/away from head
11
Q
Anterior (Ventral) /Posterior (Dorsal)
A
front/back of body
12
Q
Medial/Lateral/Intermediate
A
toward mid-line/away from mid-line/btwn a more medial and lateral structure
13
Q
Proximal/Distal
A
closer to/farther from origin of body part
14
Q
Regional Terms: Anterior View
A
pg 18
15
Q
Pic: Body Planes:
A
Pg 21
16
Q
Sagittal Plane
A
divide body into R and L
17
Q
Midsagittal / Medial
A
sagittal plane that lies on the midline
18
Q
Frontal / Coronal Plane
A
divides body into Anterior/Posterior
19
Q
Transverse / Horizontal Plane
A
divides body into superior / inferior (cross section)
20
Q
Oblique Section
A
cuts made diagonally
21
Q
Dextracardia
A
Heart on right side (Dextra = Right) (Sinister = Left)
22
Q
Dorsal cavity protects
A
nervous system (Dorsal=back)
23
Q
Dorsal Cavity (2 parts)
A
Cranial cavity = within skull (encases brain) Vertebral cavity = runs w vertebral column (encases SC)
24
Q
Ventral Cavity houses
A
the internal organs (viscera) (Ventral=front)
25
Ventral Cavity (2 parts)
-Thoracic -Abdominal -Pelvic (Abdominopelvic)
26
What is the chief respiratory muscle?
Diaphragm
27
Abdominal Cavity houses
digestive viscera (stomach, intestine, spleen, liver and other organs)
28
Pelvic cavity houses
bladder, repro organs, rectum
29
\* What cavity is the heart in?
usually Thoracic. However, in Hypertrophy of R Ventricle, there is an INC in size and heart enters abdominal cavity. Usually in females during pregnancy
30
Thoracic Cavity contains
Heart and Lungs
31
Thoracic Cavity (parts), pg 25
-Mediastinum -Pleural Cavity (2, each houses one lung) -Pericardial cav w mediastinum (enclose heart)
32
Latin words mean: -Hepar -Lien -Ren -Nephro (greek) -Gaster -Ventricular (greek)
-Hepar = Liver (hepatitis) -Lien = Spleen -Ren = kidney -Nephro (greek) kidney -Gaster = stomach -Ventricular (greek) = stomach
33
Mediastinum - 3 Parts
pericardial cavity, surrounds remaining thoracic organs -Superior -Middle -Inferior
34
How much fluid in Pleural Cavities
10-15ml. Purpose to prevent friction of lung membranes. If there is a pleural friction rub, indicates Hydrothorax. fluid in pleural cavity
35
Pleural membrane covers the....
lungs
36
Pericardium covers the....
heart
37
\* Where is the heart located?
IN the thoracic cavity, in Middle Mediastinum
38
Pneumothorax
air in pleural cavity
39
Hemothorax
blood in pleaurla cavity
40
Ventral Cavity Membranes
-Parietal Serosa (lines internal body walls, outer layer balloon) -Visceral Serosa (covers organs, inner layer) -Serous fluid separates the serosae
41
\* Cardiac Tamponade
Compression of the heart caused by fluid collecting in the sac surrounding the heart.
42
Abdominopelvic Regions
p 33 condriac = cartilage
43
Organs of Abdominopelvic region,...
pg 34
44
Abdominal Quadrants (4)
Right Upper (RUQ) Left Upper (LUQ) Right Lower (RLQ) Left Lower (LLQ)
45
Abdominal Regions (9)
.Right Hypochondriac Region .Epigastric Region .Left Hypochondriac Region .Right Lumbar Region .Umbilical Region .Left Lumbar Region .Right Iliac (inguinal) Region .Hypogastric (Pubic) Region .Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region
46
4 Types of Tissue
-Epithelial -Smooth Muscle -Connective Tissue -Nerve
47
Major source of Vit D
through skin. Milk - Vit D - D1 - Liver (D2) - Kidney (D3, activated form)
48
What is the activated form of Vit D
D3, reliant upon kidneys to convert from Liver's D2.
49
Hematopoiesis
-formation of blood cells -All blood cells start off as hematopoietic stem cells, and then specialize (differentiate) into myeloid cells (erythrocytes, megakaryocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, or eosinophils) or lymphoid cells (T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes).
50
Skeletal Sytem Facts
-made of bone, cartilage, ligaments -protect/support body organs -framework for muscles -site of blood formation -stores minerals
51
Fracture of long bone increases risk of....
fat embolism
52
95% of hematopoesis takes place in the....
sternum (95% of marrow is yellow, fatty)
53
Muscular System facts...
muscles/tendons -produce heat -locomotion -posture
54
Glucose storage (3 places)
-skeletal muscle -liver -RBCs
55
3 types of muscle
-skeletal -smooth -cardiac
56
Nervous system facts....
(brain/SC/nerves) -fast acting control system of body -responds to stimuli by activating muscles/glands
57
Cardiovascular System facts....
heart/blood vessels -heart pumps blood -blood vessels transport blood thru body
58
Lymphatic System facts...
(red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels) -returns leaked fluid to blood -disposes debris in lymphatic system -houses WBCs involved w immunity
59
Central Lymphoid System...
Thymus and Bone marrow (immature cells mature)
60
Peripheral Lymphoid System....
spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, (initiate adaptive immune response)
61
Respiratory Sytem facts...
(nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs)
62
Digestive System facts...
(oral cavity,esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine,rectum, anus, LIVER) -breaks down food to absorbable units -eliminates indigestible as feces
63
Urinary System facts...
(kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra) -eliminates nitrogenous waste -regulate H2O, electrolytes and pH balance of blood
64
what is relationship between kidney and Vit D
creates activated Vit D3
65
Kidney Functions
-eliminates N waste (Filtration) -activation of Vit D3 -creation of erythropoietin, hormone to produce RBCs Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion
66
the 3 interdependent components of control mechanisms...
.Receptor: monitor envt, respond to changes/stimuli .Control Center: determines set point at which variable is maintained. .Effector: means to respond to stimuli
67
Negative Feedback
-the output shuts off the original stimulus (i.e. regulation of temp) -controls 99% of organ systems
68
Positive Feedback
-output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus (i.e. regulation of blood clotting)
69
2 Types of Cells
-Eukaryotic (w nucleus): present in human, plant, animal -Prokaryotic (no nucleus): present in bacteria only
70
Who discovered the cell?
-Robert Hooke -cell is the smallest unit capable of performing life functions
71
Type of cells
about 200 types, categorized by shape. -squamous: thin, flat, covers surface (skin) epithelial -cuboidal: cubed (liver) epithelial -columnar: columnar (intestines) epithelial -sheroid: egg (fat cells) -fusiform: thick, tapered (smooth muscle) -stellate: start (nerve)
72
Pic of cells
pg 69/70 eukaryotic, prokaryotic
73
Cristeae
zig zag structure in mitochondria. site production of ATP 1 mol glucose = 32 mol ATP
74
1 molecule Glucose = ? ATP
32 molecules of ATP
75
Ribosomes
-synthesis of proteins -each cell contains thousands -found in rough ER and in cytoplasm
76
Endoplasmic Reticulum (2 types)
.smooth - helps detox (synthesize steroids, lipids) .rough - protein synthesis (ribosomes embedded within)
77
Integral Proteins
pass along plasma membrane Functions: Receptors Enzymes Channel Proteins (doors, allow H2O passage) Carriers (pumps) transport mol to cells
78
2 types of Carriers (pumps)
Na Pump: takes Na outside K pump: brings K in Pumps need ATP to work: ACTIVE Transport
79
Glycocalyx
-hair like layer external to plasma membrane -enables body to distinguish own cells w intruders
80
Passive Transport
Filtration, Diffusion, Osmosis
81
Active Transport
Vesicular transport
82
Endocytosis
bring matter into a cell
83
Exocytosis
release matter from a cell
84
Pinocytosis
drinking a cell
85
Phagocytosis
eating a cell
86
How many pair of chromosomes in houman
-46. 23 from mom, 23 from dad. -44 are autosomes -2 are sex chromosomes -Autosomal disease: involve any but the 2 sex hormones
87
Nucleolus
-inside nucleus -contains RNA (synthesis of proteins) to build proteins
88
What else has 46 chormosomes
Pigs, Dorsal Flies
89
3 types of RNA
M-Rna (messenger) T-Rna (transport) R-Rna (Ribosomes, synthesis of proteins)
90
Mitochondria
power house of cell -controls H2O levels in cell -recycles/decompose fats, proteins, carbs
91
Golgi Body
packaging plant package proteins, remove waste
92
Centrioles
used in mitosis -bunch of microtubules that combine to for a centrosome
93
4 stages of Mitosis
somatic cells only (other than repro organs) -Prophase: condensing of chromatin fibers -Metaphase: chromotid fibers line up -Anaphase:centromeres joining the chromatids split and move to opposite sides of cell -Telophase: nuclei appear around two new sets of chromosomes
94
Meiosis
in gametes (sex organs)
95
3 Major Functions of Epithelial Tissue
-secretion (mucous, IgAS) -absorption (through intestines) -protection (skin, cavity lining)
96
5 Types of Immunoglobulins
A (IgAg), D, E, G, M
97
Epithelia (simple squamous)
diffusion/filtration (kidney glomeruli, lining heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, serosae)
98
Epithelia (simple cuboidal)
secretion/absorption kidney tubules, ducts, secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface
99
Epithelia (simple columnar)
non ciliated: line digestive track, gall bladder ciliated: line small bronchi, uterine tubes, parts uterus
100
Epithelia (pseudostratified columnar)
single layer of cells w diff heights. -propulsion of mucus, secretion -in male sperm
101
Epithelia (stratified squamous)
thick membrane, several layers -epidermis (keratinized cells) -lining of esophagus, mouth, vagine (non keratinized)
102
Types of Glands
Exocrine: produce enzymes, more numerous, secrete onto body surface or in body cavities (mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands) Endocrine: ductless glands that produce hormones. secretions include amino acids, proteins, glycoproteins, steroids
103
Is the Pancreas and Endo or Exocrine gland?
BOTH Endocrine: hormone insulin Exocrine: enzymes for digestion
104
Modes of Secretion
Merocrine: secreted by exocytosis (inside to OUT, pancreas, sweat, salivary glands) Holocrine: secreted by rupture of gland (sebaceous gland)
105
Regional Terms: Posterior View
106
Where is connective tissue found?
.found throught body
.rich in blood supply
.cells scattered thoughtout an intracellular matrix of protein fibers
107
Type of Connective Tissue
- Connective Tissue Proper
- Cartilage
- bone
- blood
108
2 Types of Cells
BLASTS - immature cells. high cell division, responsible for making the matrix
Fibroblasts abundant in Conn tissue
CYTE- mature cells. matured blasts that keep matrix together
109
?Relationship btwn Conn Tissue and Inflammation?
signicficant in inflammation. CT is rich in Fibroblasts. Fibroblasts responsible for production of collagen and wound healing
110
Function of Connective Tissue
- bindint=g/support
- protection
- insulation
- transportation
111
Characteristics of CT
**Mesenchyme** - common tissue of origin. a loosely organized, mainly mesodermal **embryonic** tissue that develops into connective and skeletal tissues, including blood and lymph. (embryo, fetus)
**Parenchymal** - main cells of the organ that perform the main functions.
**i.e.** Liver has Hepatocytes. Hepatocytes perform main function in liver. They are Parenchymal cells. The arteries, veins (supporting parts) are Mesenchymal.
112
Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
**-Ground Substance:** unstructured matieral tha fills space btwn cells
- **Fibers:** collagen (fibraoblasts), elastic or reticular
- **Cells:** fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblast, hematopoietic stem cells
113
Types of cells in Connective Tissue
-**Fibroblasts**: main function to produce collagen (CT proper)
**-Mast Cells:** vital role in inflamation. produce **mediators** (chemical) of inflammation. **Histamine**. Other types of cells produce mediators as well.
- **Chrondroblasts -** cartilage
- **Osteoblasts** (immature bone cells)
- **Leukocytes** (hemopoeisis), Plasma cells, macrophages
- **Adipose**
114
Production of Collagen
Vit C and Proilne (amino acid)
115
Histamine produced by
produced by **basophils** and by **mast cells** found in nearby connective tissues. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues.
116
Ground Substance
Element in Connective Tissue
- **Interstitial** fluid
- **Proteoglycans** - glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
- **molecular seive**, nutrients diffuse btwn blood capillaries and cells
- **Hyalurinoc Acid** - slippery, gel like, lubricate joints, eye shaped
- **Chondroitin sulfate** - support in cartilge, bone, skin, b vessels
- **Dermatan sulfate** - skin, tendons, heart valves
- **Keratin Sulfate**: cornea, bone cartilage
117
Types of Fibers
**Collagen**: touch, high tensile strength
**Elastic**: long, thin allow for stretch
**Reticular** - branched, delicate network
118
Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar, Adipose, Reticular (bone marrow)
fill gaps between organs
119
Dense Connective Tissue
-Dense Regular, Dense Irregular, Elastic
120
CT Proper: Loose: Areolar
Areolar CT
- gel like matrix with all 3 ct fibers
- firbroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, some WBC
- wraps and cushions organs
- widely distributed through body
-
121
CT Proper: Loose: Adipose
- similar to areolar w closely packed adipocytes
- reserves food stores, insulates heat loss, support, protects
- under skin, around kidneys, in abdomen and breasts
- local fat deposit serve nurtient needs of active organizms
122
CT Proper: Loose: Reticular
- loose ground substance w reficular fibers
- reticular cells lie in fiber network
- forms soft internal skeleton, support other cell types
- in lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen
123
CT Proper: Dense: Regular
- parallel collaged fibers w few elastic fibers
- major cell type FIBROBLASTS (produce collagen)
- attaches muscle to bone or other muscles and bone to bone
- in tendons (muscle - bone), ligaments (connect 2 small joints), aponerosis (broad)
Achilles tendon: strongest tendon in body
124
Apponeurosis
a sheet of pearly-white fibrous tissue that takes the place of a tendon in sheetlike muscles having a wide area of attachment.
(line alba, dypoid process - pubic bone, white tissue)
125
CT Proper: Dense Irregular
.-irregularly arranged collagen fibers w some elastic fibers
- major cells FIBROBLASTS
- withstands tension in many directions (structural strength)
- in dermis, submucosa of digestive tract, fibrous organ capsules (i.e. thymus)
126
Type of Cartiage
Hyaline
d
d
127
Hyaline Cartilage
- most abundant, weakest
- Chondrocytes lie in lacunae
- support, reinforce, cushion, resist compression, reduce friction
- forms costal carilage
- in embryonic skeleton, end of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx
- provides smooth surface for mvmt at joints
128
Elastic Cartilage
- similar to hyaline, but more elastic fibers
- maintain shape, structure and allow flexibility
- supports external ear (pinna)
129
Fibrocartilage
- similar to hyaline but less firm w thick collagen fibers
- tensile strenght and absorbs compression shock
- in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint
130
Bone (Osseous tissue)
- hard, calcified matrix w collagen fibers
- osteocytes found in lacunae adn well vascularized
- supports, protects, levers for muscular action
- stores Ca, Minerals, Fat
- marrow is site of hematopoiesis
131
CT: Blood
- red, white cells in fluid matrix (plasma)
- within blood vessels
- transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes
132
Nervous Tissue
- branched nuerons w long cellular proecsses and support cells
- transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to effecctors
- in brain, SC, peripheral nerves
133
Muscle Tissue: Skeletal
- long cylindrical, **multinucleate** cells w obvious striations.
- voluntary mvmt
- in skeletal muscles that attach to bones or skin
- Skeleton, tongue, diaphragm, outer anus spinchter, outer urethra spincter
134
Muscle Tissue: Cardiac
- branching, striated, **uninucleate** cells, interlocking at intercalated discs
- propels blook into circulation
- in heart walls
135
Muscle Tissue: Smooth
.-
136
Causes of Inflammation characterized by
- dilations of BVs (in order to increase blood flow to site of injury)
- increase in vessel permeability
- redness, heat, swelling and pain
- Initial step in healing process
137
Pyrogen
chem mediator released by bacteria in body. Pyrogen UP temp, by acting on Hypothalmus.
138
Tissue Repair: 2 results
- organization and restore blood supply
- blood clot replaced by granulation tissue
- regeneratoin & fibrosis (scar tissue, harder conn tiss)
1) Scar 2) Cure (fully regenerated epithelium w underlying scar tissue)
139
What are the 3 primary germ layers?
3 layers formed early in embryolnic development.
## Footnote
- Ectoderm (outermost layer, nervous tissue)
- mesoderm (middle layer, bone/muscle)
- endoderm (innermost layer, disgestive and respiratory sys)
140
What layer does nerve tissue arise from?
Ectoderm (outermost germ layer, nervous tissue)
141
Epithelial tissue arise from which layer?
all three.
## Footnote
- Ectoderm (nervous)
- Mesoderm (bone, muscle, connect tissue, endothelium, mesothelium)
- Endoderm (digestive)
142
Chemistry
Chemistry
143
Matter
anything that has mass.
144
3 states of Mass
solid, liquid, gas
145
Energy, Types
the capacity to do work.
Kinetic (energy in action)
Potential (energy of position, stored)
146
Forms of Energy
- Chemical (stored in bonds of chem substances)
- Electrical (resulting from mvmt of charged particles)
- Mechanical (directyl involved in moving matter)
- Radiant/Eletromagnetic (energy travelling in waves, light)
147
Elements
unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary checmical means
148
Atoms
building blocks, smallest particle
149
Major elements in Human Body
Oxygen, O
Carbon, C
Hydrogen, H
Nitrogen, N
150
Ca
Calcium
-bone strength, clotting, contractoin of muscle
151
P
Phosphorus
Bone
152
K
Potassium
-relaxation of all types of muscles
153
S
Sulfur
154
Na
Sodium
-skeletal muscles
.if kidney not working, pt die of UP K. Heart not pumping due to too much K.
155
Cl
Chlorine
-relaxation of musles
(anti epileptic drugs activate Cl in body to relax muscles.)
156
Mg
Magnesium
-relaxation. Eclampsia, Mg best treatment to relax muscles. Dilate vessels, LO BP
157
I
Iodine
-thyroid, UP mental activity of brain intelligence
158
Nootropil (piracetam)
Nootropil tablets and oral solution both contain the active ingredient piracetam. This is a medicine that is used to control twitching and jerking of the muscles.
159
Atomic #
of protons
160
Mass #
protons and neutrons
161
Atomic Weight
isotopes
162
Isotope
atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
163
Radioisotopes
atoms that undergo spontaneous decay called radioactivity
164
Molecule
two or more atoms held together by chemical bond
165
1 mole
atomic or molecular weight in grams
166
Types of Bonds
Ionic (charged due to gain/loss of an e)
Covalent ( )
Hydrogen ( )
167
Ions
Anions have gained one or more e
Cations have lost one or more e
168
p 185 and rest. Chem
Chem
