x A&P 1/2 (1-5) Flashcards
Anatomy
study and structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
Physiology
study of the function of body’s structural machinery
Cytology
study of the cell
Histology
study of tissues
Embryology
study of developmental changes of the body before birth
Pathological anatomy
study of structural changes caused by disease
Molecular Biology
study of anatomical structures at sub cellular level
Principle of Complementarity
-function always reflects structure -what a structure can do, depends on it’s specific form
Anatomical Position
Body erect, feet slight apart, palm facing forwards, thumbs point away from body
Superior (cranial) /Inferior (caudal)
towards/away from head
Anterior (Ventral) /Posterior (Dorsal)
front/back of body
Medial/Lateral/Intermediate
toward mid-line/away from mid-line/btwn a more medial and lateral structure
Proximal/Distal
closer to/farther from origin of body part
Regional Terms: Anterior View
pg 18
Pic: Body Planes:
Pg 21
Sagittal Plane
divide body into R and L
Midsagittal / Medial
sagittal plane that lies on the midline
Frontal / Coronal Plane
divides body into Anterior/Posterior
Transverse / Horizontal Plane
divides body into superior / inferior (cross section)
Oblique Section
cuts made diagonally
Dextracardia
Heart on right side (Dextra = Right) (Sinister = Left)
Dorsal cavity protects
nervous system (Dorsal=back)
Dorsal Cavity (2 parts)
Cranial cavity = within skull (encases brain) Vertebral cavity = runs w vertebral column (encases SC)
Ventral Cavity houses
the internal organs (viscera) (Ventral=front)
Ventral Cavity (2 parts)
-Thoracic -Abdominal -Pelvic (Abdominopelvic)
What is the chief respiratory muscle?
Diaphragm
Abdominal Cavity houses
digestive viscera (stomach, intestine, spleen, liver and other organs)
Pelvic cavity houses
bladder, repro organs, rectum
* What cavity is the heart in?
usually Thoracic. However, in Hypertrophy of R Ventricle, there is an INC in size and heart enters abdominal cavity. Usually in females during pregnancy
Thoracic Cavity contains
Heart and Lungs
Thoracic Cavity (parts), pg 25
-Mediastinum -Pleural Cavity (2, each houses one lung) -Pericardial cav w mediastinum (enclose heart)
Latin words mean: -Hepar -Lien -Ren -Nephro (greek) -Gaster -Ventricular (greek)
-Hepar = Liver (hepatitis) -Lien = Spleen -Ren = kidney -Nephro (greek) kidney -Gaster = stomach -Ventricular (greek) = stomach
Mediastinum - 3 Parts
pericardial cavity, surrounds remaining thoracic organs -Superior -Middle -Inferior
How much fluid in Pleural Cavities
10-15ml. Purpose to prevent friction of lung membranes. If there is a pleural friction rub, indicates Hydrothorax. fluid in pleural cavity
Pleural membrane covers the….
lungs
Pericardium covers the….
heart
* Where is the heart located?
IN the thoracic cavity, in Middle Mediastinum
Pneumothorax
air in pleural cavity
Hemothorax
blood in pleaurla cavity
Ventral Cavity Membranes
-Parietal Serosa (lines internal body walls, outer layer balloon) -Visceral Serosa (covers organs, inner layer) -Serous fluid separates the serosae
* Cardiac Tamponade
Compression of the heart caused by fluid collecting in the sac surrounding the heart.
Abdominopelvic Regions
p 33 condriac = cartilage
Organs of Abdominopelvic region,…
pg 34
Abdominal Quadrants (4)
Right Upper (RUQ) Left Upper (LUQ) Right Lower (RLQ) Left Lower (LLQ)
Abdominal Regions (9)
.Right Hypochondriac Region .Epigastric Region .Left Hypochondriac Region .Right Lumbar Region .Umbilical Region .Left Lumbar Region .Right Iliac (inguinal) Region .Hypogastric (Pubic) Region .Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region
4 Types of Tissue
-Epithelial -Smooth Muscle -Connective Tissue -Nerve
Major source of Vit D
through skin. Milk - Vit D - D1 - Liver (D2) - Kidney (D3, activated form)
What is the activated form of Vit D
D3, reliant upon kidneys to convert from Liver’s D2.
Hematopoiesis
-formation of blood cells -All blood cells start off as hematopoietic stem cells, and then specialize (differentiate) into myeloid cells (erythrocytes, megakaryocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, or eosinophils) or lymphoid cells (T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes).
Skeletal Sytem Facts
-made of bone, cartilage, ligaments -protect/support body organs -framework for muscles -site of blood formation -stores minerals
Fracture of long bone increases risk of….
fat embolism
95% of hematopoesis takes place in the….
sternum (95% of marrow is yellow, fatty)
Muscular System facts…
muscles/tendons -produce heat -locomotion -posture
Glucose storage (3 places)
-skeletal muscle -liver -RBCs
3 types of muscle
-skeletal -smooth -cardiac
Nervous system facts….
(brain/SC/nerves) -fast acting control system of body -responds to stimuli by activating muscles/glands
Cardiovascular System facts….
heart/blood vessels -heart pumps blood -blood vessels transport blood thru body
Lymphatic System facts…
(red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels) -returns leaked fluid to blood -disposes debris in lymphatic system -houses WBCs involved w immunity
Central Lymphoid System…
Thymus and Bone marrow (immature cells mature)
Peripheral Lymphoid System….
spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, (initiate adaptive immune response)
Respiratory Sytem facts…
(nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs)
Digestive System facts…
(oral cavity,esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine,rectum, anus, LIVER) -breaks down food to absorbable units -eliminates indigestible as feces
Urinary System facts…
(kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra) -eliminates nitrogenous waste -regulate H2O, electrolytes and pH balance of blood
what is relationship between kidney and Vit D
creates activated Vit D3
Kidney Functions
-eliminates N waste (Filtration) -activation of Vit D3 -creation of erythropoietin, hormone to produce RBCs Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion
the 3 interdependent components of control mechanisms…
.Receptor: monitor envt, respond to changes/stimuli .Control Center: determines set point at which variable is maintained. .Effector: means to respond to stimuli
Negative Feedback
-the output shuts off the original stimulus (i.e. regulation of temp) -controls 99% of organ systems
Positive Feedback
-output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus (i.e. regulation of blood clotting)
2 Types of Cells
-Eukaryotic (w nucleus): present in human, plant, animal -Prokaryotic (no nucleus): present in bacteria only
Who discovered the cell?
-Robert Hooke -cell is the smallest unit capable of performing life functions
Type of cells
about 200 types, categorized by shape. -squamous: thin, flat, covers surface (skin) epithelial -cuboidal: cubed (liver) epithelial -columnar: columnar (intestines) epithelial -sheroid: egg (fat cells) -fusiform: thick, tapered (smooth muscle) -stellate: start (nerve)
Pic of cells
pg 69/70 eukaryotic, prokaryotic
Cristeae
zig zag structure in mitochondria. site production of ATP 1 mol glucose = 32 mol ATP
1 molecule Glucose = ? ATP
32 molecules of ATP
Ribosomes
-synthesis of proteins -each cell contains thousands -found in rough ER and in cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum (2 types)
.smooth - helps detox (synthesize steroids, lipids) .rough - protein synthesis (ribosomes embedded within)
Integral Proteins
pass along plasma membrane Functions: Receptors Enzymes Channel Proteins (doors, allow H2O passage) Carriers (pumps) transport mol to cells
2 types of Carriers (pumps)
Na Pump: takes Na outside K pump: brings K in Pumps need ATP to work: ACTIVE Transport
Glycocalyx
-hair like layer external to plasma membrane -enables body to distinguish own cells w intruders
Passive Transport
Filtration, Diffusion, Osmosis
Active Transport
Vesicular transport
Endocytosis
bring matter into a cell
Exocytosis
release matter from a cell
Pinocytosis
drinking a cell
Phagocytosis
eating a cell
How many pair of chromosomes in houman
-46. 23 from mom, 23 from dad. -44 are autosomes -2 are sex chromosomes -Autosomal disease: involve any but the 2 sex hormones
Nucleolus
-inside nucleus -contains RNA (synthesis of proteins) to build proteins
What else has 46 chormosomes
Pigs, Dorsal Flies
3 types of RNA
M-Rna (messenger) T-Rna (transport) R-Rna (Ribosomes, synthesis of proteins)
Mitochondria
power house of cell -controls H2O levels in cell -recycles/decompose fats, proteins, carbs
Golgi Body
packaging plant package proteins, remove waste
Centrioles
used in mitosis -bunch of microtubules that combine to for a centrosome
4 stages of Mitosis
somatic cells only (other than repro organs) -Prophase: condensing of chromatin fibers -Metaphase: chromotid fibers line up -Anaphase:centromeres joining the chromatids split and move to opposite sides of cell -Telophase: nuclei appear around two new sets of chromosomes
Meiosis
in gametes (sex organs)
3 Major Functions of Epithelial Tissue
-secretion (mucous, IgAS) -absorption (through intestines) -protection (skin, cavity lining)
5 Types of Immunoglobulins
A (IgAg), D, E, G, M
Epithelia (simple squamous)
diffusion/filtration (kidney glomeruli, lining heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, serosae)
Epithelia (simple cuboidal)
secretion/absorption kidney tubules, ducts, secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface
Epithelia (simple columnar)
non ciliated: line digestive track, gall bladder ciliated: line small bronchi, uterine tubes, parts uterus
Epithelia (pseudostratified columnar)
single layer of cells w diff heights. -propulsion of mucus, secretion -in male sperm
Epithelia (stratified squamous)
thick membrane, several layers -epidermis (keratinized cells) -lining of esophagus, mouth, vagine (non keratinized)
Types of Glands
Exocrine: produce enzymes, more numerous, secrete onto body surface or in body cavities (mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands) Endocrine: ductless glands that produce hormones. secretions include amino acids, proteins, glycoproteins, steroids
Is the Pancreas and Endo or Exocrine gland?
BOTH Endocrine: hormone insulin Exocrine: enzymes for digestion
Modes of Secretion
Merocrine: secreted by exocytosis (inside to OUT, pancreas, sweat, salivary glands) Holocrine: secreted by rupture of gland (sebaceous gland)
Regional Terms: Posterior View
Where is connective tissue found?
.found throught body
.rich in blood supply
.cells scattered thoughtout an intracellular matrix of protein fibers
Type of Connective Tissue
- Connective Tissue Proper
- Cartilage
- bone
- blood
2 Types of Cells
BLASTS - immature cells. high cell division, responsible for making the matrix
Fibroblasts abundant in Conn tissue
CYTE- mature cells. matured blasts that keep matrix together
?Relationship btwn Conn Tissue and Inflammation?
signicficant in inflammation. CT is rich in Fibroblasts. Fibroblasts responsible for production of collagen and wound healing
Function of Connective Tissue
- bindint=g/support
- protection
- insulation
- transportation
Characteristics of CT
Mesenchyme - common tissue of origin. a loosely organized, mainly mesodermal embryonic tissue that develops into connective and skeletal tissues, including blood and lymph. (embryo, fetus)
Parenchymal - main cells of the organ that perform the main functions.
i.e. Liver has Hepatocytes. Hepatocytes perform main function in liver. They are Parenchymal cells. The arteries, veins (supporting parts) are Mesenchymal.
Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
-Ground Substance: unstructured matieral tha fills space btwn cells
- Fibers: collagen (fibraoblasts), elastic or reticular
- Cells: fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblast, hematopoietic stem cells
Types of cells in Connective Tissue
-Fibroblasts: main function to produce collagen (CT proper)
-Mast Cells: vital role in inflamation. produce mediators (chemical) of inflammation. Histamine. Other types of cells produce mediators as well.
- Chrondroblasts - cartilage
- Osteoblasts (immature bone cells)
- Leukocytes (hemopoeisis), Plasma cells, macrophages
- Adipose
Production of Collagen
Vit C and Proilne (amino acid)
Histamine produced by
produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues.
Ground Substance
Element in Connective Tissue
- Interstitial fluid
- Proteoglycans - glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
- molecular seive, nutrients diffuse btwn blood capillaries and cells
- Hyalurinoc Acid - slippery, gel like, lubricate joints, eye shaped
- Chondroitin sulfate - support in cartilge, bone, skin, b vessels
- Dermatan sulfate - skin, tendons, heart valves
- Keratin Sulfate: cornea, bone cartilage
Types of Fibers
Collagen: touch, high tensile strength
Elastic: long, thin allow for stretch
Reticular - branched, delicate network
Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar, Adipose, Reticular (bone marrow)
fill gaps between organs
Dense Connective Tissue
-Dense Regular, Dense Irregular, Elastic
CT Proper: Loose: Areolar
Areolar CT
- gel like matrix with all 3 ct fibers
- firbroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, some WBC
- wraps and cushions organs
- widely distributed through body
-
CT Proper: Loose: Adipose
- similar to areolar w closely packed adipocytes
- reserves food stores, insulates heat loss, support, protects
- under skin, around kidneys, in abdomen and breasts
- local fat deposit serve nurtient needs of active organizms
CT Proper: Loose: Reticular
- loose ground substance w reficular fibers
- reticular cells lie in fiber network
- forms soft internal skeleton, support other cell types
- in lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen
CT Proper: Dense: Regular
- parallel collaged fibers w few elastic fibers
- major cell type FIBROBLASTS (produce collagen)
- attaches muscle to bone or other muscles and bone to bone
- in tendons (muscle - bone), ligaments (connect 2 small joints), aponerosis (broad)
Achilles tendon: strongest tendon in body
Apponeurosis
a sheet of pearly-white fibrous tissue that takes the place of a tendon in sheetlike muscles having a wide area of attachment.
(line alba, dypoid process - pubic bone, white tissue)
CT Proper: Dense Irregular
.-irregularly arranged collagen fibers w some elastic fibers
- major cells FIBROBLASTS
- withstands tension in many directions (structural strength)
- in dermis, submucosa of digestive tract, fibrous organ capsules (i.e. thymus)
Type of Cartiage
Hyaline
d
d
Hyaline Cartilage
- most abundant, weakest
- Chondrocytes lie in lacunae
- support, reinforce, cushion, resist compression, reduce friction
- forms costal carilage
- in embryonic skeleton, end of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx
- provides smooth surface for mvmt at joints
Elastic Cartilage
- similar to hyaline, but more elastic fibers
- maintain shape, structure and allow flexibility
- supports external ear (pinna)
Fibrocartilage
- similar to hyaline but less firm w thick collagen fibers
- tensile strenght and absorbs compression shock
- in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint
Bone (Osseous tissue)
- hard, calcified matrix w collagen fibers
- osteocytes found in lacunae adn well vascularized
- supports, protects, levers for muscular action
- stores Ca, Minerals, Fat
- marrow is site of hematopoiesis
CT: Blood
- red, white cells in fluid matrix (plasma)
- within blood vessels
- transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes
Nervous Tissue
- branched nuerons w long cellular proecsses and support cells
- transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to effecctors
- in brain, SC, peripheral nerves
Muscle Tissue: Skeletal
- long cylindrical, multinucleate cells w obvious striations.
- voluntary mvmt
- in skeletal muscles that attach to bones or skin
- Skeleton, tongue, diaphragm, outer anus spinchter, outer urethra spincter
Muscle Tissue: Cardiac
- branching, striated, uninucleate cells, interlocking at intercalated discs
- propels blook into circulation
- in heart walls
Muscle Tissue: Smooth
.-
Causes of Inflammation characterized by
- dilations of BVs (in order to increase blood flow to site of injury)
- increase in vessel permeability
- redness, heat, swelling and pain
- Initial step in healing process
Pyrogen
chem mediator released by bacteria in body. Pyrogen UP temp, by acting on Hypothalmus.
Tissue Repair: 2 results
- organization and restore blood supply
- blood clot replaced by granulation tissue
- regeneratoin & fibrosis (scar tissue, harder conn tiss)
1) Scar 2) Cure (fully regenerated epithelium w underlying scar tissue)
What are the 3 primary germ layers?
3 layers formed early in embryolnic development.
- Ectoderm (outermost layer, nervous tissue)
- mesoderm (middle layer, bone/muscle)
- endoderm (innermost layer, disgestive and respiratory sys)
What layer does nerve tissue arise from?
Ectoderm (outermost germ layer, nervous tissue)
Epithelial tissue arise from which layer?
all three.
- Ectoderm (nervous)
- Mesoderm (bone, muscle, connect tissue, endothelium, mesothelium)
- Endoderm (digestive)
Chemistry
Chemistry
Matter
anything that has mass.
3 states of Mass
solid, liquid, gas
Energy, Types
the capacity to do work.
Kinetic (energy in action)
Potential (energy of position, stored)
Forms of Energy
- Chemical (stored in bonds of chem substances)
- Electrical (resulting from mvmt of charged particles)
- Mechanical (directyl involved in moving matter)
- Radiant/Eletromagnetic (energy travelling in waves, light)
Elements
unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary checmical means
Atoms
building blocks, smallest particle
Major elements in Human Body
Oxygen, O
Carbon, C
Hydrogen, H
Nitrogen, N
Ca
Calcium
-bone strength, clotting, contractoin of muscle
P
Phosphorus
Bone
K
Potassium
-relaxation of all types of muscles
S
Sulfur
Na
Sodium
-skeletal muscles
.if kidney not working, pt die of UP K. Heart not pumping due to too much K.
Cl
Chlorine
-relaxation of musles
(anti epileptic drugs activate Cl in body to relax muscles.)
Mg
Magnesium
-relaxation. Eclampsia, Mg best treatment to relax muscles. Dilate vessels, LO BP
I
Iodine
-thyroid, UP mental activity of brain intelligence
Nootropil (piracetam)
Nootropil tablets and oral solution both contain the active ingredient piracetam. This is a medicine that is used to control twitching and jerking of the muscles.
Atomic #
of protons
Mass #
protons and neutrons
Atomic Weight
isotopes
Isotope
atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Radioisotopes
atoms that undergo spontaneous decay called radioactivity
Molecule
two or more atoms held together by chemical bond
1 mole
atomic or molecular weight in grams
Types of Bonds
Ionic (charged due to gain/loss of an e)
Covalent ( )
Hydrogen ( )
Ions
Anions have gained one or more e
Cations have lost one or more e
p 185 and rest. Chem
Chem
