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WRONG ppqs Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

vaccination vs immunisation

A

vaccination is injection of antigenic material
immmunisation is the porcess of developing immunity

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2
Q

lubdub caused by

A

LUB = av valves closing
DUB = semilunar valves closing

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3
Q

if the ion is necessary for the function what is it

A

PROSTHETIC GROUP

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4
Q

in what way does most water move across the root cortex

A

apoplast pathway

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5
Q

casparian strip contains …

A

(lignin)SUBERIN

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6
Q

how can facilitated diffusion NOT reqruie energy

A
  • particles have their own kinetic energy
  • move DOWN the concentration gradient
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7
Q

why cant glucose diffuse throguh membrane

A
  • phospholipid bilayer acts as a barrier
  • glucose molecules too large
  • ALSO; glucose not soluble in phospholipid bilayer due to polar -OH groups
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8
Q

suggest how a water leaf is supported

A
  • air spaces give buoyancy
  • supoorted by surrounding water
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9
Q

sieve tube shape

A

hexagonal

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10
Q

purpose of disulfide bridge in antibodies

A
  • hold hte ppcs (light chains and heavy chains) together
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11
Q

what is an autoimmunie disease (2)

A
  • abnormal immune response
  • agaisnt tissues normally in the body
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12
Q

how is water stil being lost even when stem is cut in potometer

A

evaporation
from leaf’s surface

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13
Q

sources of error in transporation experiment

A
  • leaks in apparatus
  • shoot not cut underwater
  • error in reading position of meniscus
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14
Q

why is x described as ACTIVE immunity (3)

A
  • lymphocytes activated
  • antibodies produced
  • memory cells remain
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15
Q

why is transpirartion inevtiable

A
  • stomata open
  • for gas exchange for photosynthesis
  • photosynthesis necessary to make sugars for energy
  • water potential gradient
  • also some lost through waxy cuticle
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16
Q

advantage of stomata close during day for xerophytes

A
  • transpiration occurs via stomata
  • hotter during day, more evaporation. steeper wvp gradient
  • shutting prevents loss
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17
Q

advantage of needles instead of leaves for xerophytes

A
  • smaller SA
  • less evaporation as fewer stomata
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18
Q

advtantage of hairs on epidermis

A
  • hairs trap water vapour
  • prevent wind from removing water vapour
  • MORE HUMID AROUND LEAF SO
  • reduce WVP gradient
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19
Q

for all xerophyte questions link to…

A

NEED TO CONSERVE WATER IN ENVIRONMENT
- and wvp gradient

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20
Q

transpiration defintion

A
  • evaporation of water
  • diffusion of water
  • down a WP gradient via stomata
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21
Q

source and sink defintion

A

source: where assimilates are loaded into the phloem
sink: where assimilates are removed from phloem

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22
Q

explain how at different times the same plant root might be a source or a sink (2)

A

SOURCE: when root converts starch into sugars
SINK: when root stores starch

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23
Q

evidence of an active process (translocation)

A

ATP
many mitochondria in companion cells
against concentration gradient

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24
Q

6 marks for valid potometer set up

A
  • cut healthy shoot underwater -> prevent air entering xylem
  • cut shoot at a slant -> increase SA
  • apparatus set up under water, full of water -> no air bubblles
  • airtight/watertight joints
    -dry leaves
    3 MARKS
  • constant conditions
  • time for shoot to acclimatise
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25
Q

why is potometer not actual measures of transpiration rate (3)

A

transpiration: loss of water vapour
- potometer measures water uptake to replace loss
- assumes all uptake is lost
- but some might be used eg photosynthesis

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26
Q

2 features of root hair cell adapted for WATER UPTAKE (3)

A
  • large sa (:v) cos of projection
  • thin wall; short diffusion path
  • unlignified
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27
Q

3 adaptattions of xylem

A
  1. hollow -> ease of flow and more space
  2. no end walls -> continuous flow
  3. lignin -> stops collapse, waterproof (spirals)
  4. narrow lumen -> more capillary rise
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28
Q

why use a large number of x for a mean (2)

A
  • smaller % uncertainty
  • results not skewed by anomalies
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29
Q

why would photographing the stomata make them easier to count (2)

A
  • permanent record
  • can zoom in
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30
Q

why is x a tissue (2)

A
  • few types of cells
  • work together for a specific function
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31
Q

companioin cell adaptations (2)

A
  1. living -> active processes
  2. many mitochondira -> ATP
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32
Q

sieeve tube adaptations (2)

A
  1. little cytoplasm -> more space for transport
  2. sieve plate -> perforations allow materials through
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33
Q

graph question: explain whether x had an impact when it was introduced in x year

A
  • USE DATA FROM GRAPH
  • Look at trends that predate the year given
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34
Q

describe the diffusion of x out of the vacuole in NORMAL conditions(3)

A
  • down a concentration gradient (high conc to low conc)
  • across TONOPLAST, cell surface membrane
  • through cell wall
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35
Q

describe trend (standard deviation increases)

A
  • smallest standard deviation = most precise. largest = least precise+QUOTE DATA
  • general trend of precision
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36
Q

ALWAYS ALWAYS LIMITATION OF BENEDICTS

A

not just glucose- ALL reducing sugars eg fructose

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37
Q

organic molecule defintion (2)

A
  • a molecule containing mainly carbon + other atoms
  • eg carbohydrates
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38
Q

why might a tube go cloudy after a NEGATIVE benedicts test (3)

A
  • boiling temp required
  • q has denatured
  • precipitate produced
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39
Q

why not look at osmosis results IMMEDIATELY (wait 15 mins)

A
  • time for WP to equilibrate
  • osmosis may be slow depneding on WP gradient
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40
Q

compare visual vs colorimeter for osmosis

A
  • visual = qualitative
  • colorimeter = quantitative
  • removes subjectivity
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41
Q

if Rf is v similar to another one, how can you modify the procedure to get a better idea? (2)

A
  • longer chromatography paper
  • better resolution
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42
Q

component of blood plasma also present in lymph (2)

A
  • water
  • glucose
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43
Q

why might WBC count be high (2)

A
  • patient recovering from an infection
  • autoimmune disease
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44
Q

effect of adding dye to a cell

A

DECREASES water potnetial of cell

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45
Q

how much sugar is detected in the leaf vs the stem?

A

-LITTLE sucrose in leaf, more in stem
- supports loading of sucrose into phloem from source

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46
Q

how much sugar detected in roots?

A

-LITTLE sucrose
- shows its used in respiration

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47
Q

how might the antiviral drug prevent the spread of a virus (3)

A
  • something to hinder the viral mRNA
  • no viral proteins made
  • NO new cells infected
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48
Q

why no plasmolysis in red blood cells (1)

A

plasmolysis is in plant cells

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49
Q

purpose of UI

A
  • measure end point
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50
Q

purpose of pits in xylem

A

lateral moevement of water

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51
Q

autoimmune disease

A

-abnormal immune response
- against tissues normally in body

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52
Q

in waht fluid does the immune response take place

A

tissue fluid

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53
Q

6 marks improving microscope viewieng (6)

A
  1. sharp blade -> thinnest slide, individual cells visisble
  2. microtome to cut THIN tissue -> thinnest slide, individual cells visible
  3. wet mount -> prevent dehydration of tissue
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54
Q

how can vesicles be moved around the cell (2)

A
  • attached by cytoskeleton
  • moves by MOTOR PROTEINS/mictrotubules change length
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55
Q

2ways to minimise spread of plague (2)

A
  • quarintine those w symptoms
  • stay indoors/increase ventilation
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56
Q

disadavtange of RBC no nucleus

A
  • no protein synthesis
  • cannot reproduce
57
Q

why does a plasmodium use a host cell

A

to ‘hide’ from the immune system

58
Q

why dont RBC use the oxygen they carry (2)

A
  • bound to haemoglobin
  • no mitochondria -> no aerobic respiration
59
Q

why can overconsuption of x and y lead to malnutrition (4)

A
  • too much energy
  • increased fat deposition
  • obesity
  • lack other food groups
60
Q

why is glucose used up most quickly before maltose etc

A
  • glucose can be used WITHOUT being broken down
  • maltose must be hydrolysed
  • ENZYME FOR THAT only made when glucose running out
  • takes time for transcription + translation
61
Q

how to test for pollutatns causing asthma (4)

A
  • use stem cells to grow lung tissue IN VITRO
  • subject tissues to atmospheres containing pollutatns
  • look for evidence of smooth muscle contracting
62
Q

mechanism of smooth muscle contracting to constrict airway

A
  • irritant inhaled
  • has a shape complementary to the shape of the receptors
  • on the plasma membrane of the smooth muscle cells
  • they contract
63
Q

why is oxygen dilevered to insects in gaseous form rather than blood? (7)

A
  • diffusion distance too great to supply enough oxygen for active tissues
  • mass flow needed
  • insects have an open circulatory system, so movement of blood not as efficient
  • diffusin of liquid is slower than that of air
64
Q

if a complete ring of bark if removes, suggest 2 reasons why the trunk swells above the cut?

A
  • sucrose+assimilates build up above the cut as cant pass
  • decrease water potential
  • water moves into cells

-increase cell division
- to produce cells to store sugars

65
Q

method of using length for diffusion

A

distance has to be divided by 2, to the centre of the cube rather than the whole length

66
Q

purpose squamous epithelium

A

short diffusion pathway

67
Q

purpose loads of alveoli

A

large surface area

68
Q

purpose good blood supply + good ventilation

A

steep concentration gradient
BLOOD SUPPLY: removes oxygen from lungs, VENTILATION: brings oxygen

69
Q

why is lignin essential (3)

A
  • strengh (support)
  • prevents collapse, keeps tube open
  • waterproofs vessel so cell dies (contents decays)
  • creates a hollow tube, continours column of water
70
Q

why is cartilage in trachea essential

A
  • strengt/support to keep trachea open, prevents collapse
  • during inhaling, volume thorax increases, pressure decreases
71
Q

substance exhcnage is always to

A

MEET NEEDS OF ORGANISM

72
Q

Resolution (2)

A
  • ability to distinguish between 2 points close together
  • level of detail
73
Q

importance of spiral of lignin (2)

A
  • allows flexibility/stretching
  • prevents stem breaking
74
Q

purpose of bordered pits (2)

A
  • allow water to move between vessels
  • supply water out to living tissues
75
Q

adaptations of sieve tube for mas flow

A
  • joined end to end to form column
  • sieve plates (perforated end walls)
  • little cytoplasm
  • no nucleus
76
Q

descrube active loading (7 MARKS)

A
  • companion cells active transpot H+ ions out
  • creates a concentration gradient
  • facilitated diffusion back into companion cells. sucrose moves with ions
  • by cotransport protein
  • assimilates diffuse through PLASMODESMATA
  • into sieve element
77
Q

describe how transpiration contributes to the mechanism of water transport up the stem

A
  • water lost is replaced
  • apoplast and symplast pathways
  • down WP gradient
  • water in the xylem
    -loss of water = low hydrostatic pressure at the top
  • water moves down pressure gradient
  • under tension(pulled up)
  • by mass flow
  • cohesion creates a column of water
  • adhesion of water molecules to xylem(capillary action)
78
Q

why might some flowers survive longer if the ends of the stems are removes before theyre placed in water

A
  • bubble/air present in xylem removed
  • restores continous column of water
79
Q

purpose of repeats (4)

A
  • improve RELIABILITY
  • identify anomalies
  • calculate mean
    -assess spread of results
80
Q

cohesion tension theory (4)

A
  • evaporation at top of plant
  • tension in xylem
  • water molecules cohesion
  • pulled up the vessel
81
Q

tranpsiation vs transpiration stream

A
  1. : loss of water vapour by evaporation from aerial parts of the leaf, stomata
  2. stream: movement of water from roots to leaves
82
Q

porblem if leaves are wet in potometer

A
  • reduces water vapour potential gradient
83
Q

ar ephospholipids soluble in water

A

no

84
Q

waht does cholestrol not contain

A

glyverol, ester bonds, fatty cids

85
Q

improve validity

A

specify somtehing to control

86
Q

how does an enzyme work (7)

A
  • sibstrate shape complementary to enzyme active site
  • substrate binds to active site
  • induced fit
  • formes ESC
  • bonds destabilised
  • EPC
  • products leave
87
Q

haemoglobin secondary structure

A
  • alpha helix
  • with some smal regions of beta pleated sheet
  • held together by h bonds
88
Q

4 places where h bonds are found in biomols

A
  • protein secondary structure
  • protein tertiary structure
  • between cellulose chains
  • between DNA bases
89
Q

what are the hpo and hpi interactions (described)

A

HPO r groups on outside of molecule
HPI r groups on inside of molecule

90
Q

why does ice float

A
  • moelcules spread out
  • lattice
91
Q

primary defences BLURT (7)

A
  1. skin: physcal barrier prevents entry of microorgs. sebum = antibacterial
  2. mucus membranes: traps pathogens
  3. cilia: waft mucus out of airways
  4. blood clot: prevents pathogens entering BLOODSTREAM
  5. ear wax/nose haris: traps pathogens
  6. lysozymes in tears: antibacterial to kill bacteria
  7. stomach acid: kills pathogens
92
Q

why are young vulnerable

A

immature weak immune system

93
Q

anitbody (6 marker blurt)

A
  • y shaped, 4 ppc, 2 light 2 heavy, disulfide bridges
  • CONSTANT REGION: opsonin, marker for/binds to phagocytes
  • VARIABLE REGION: specific shape, comp to antigen. 1+ VR = agglutination (Attach to 1+ pathogen)
  • HINGE: flexibility
  • antitoxins, neutralisation
94
Q

underlying thing for all virsus

A
  • take over host nucleus
  • viral DNA inserted into nucleus
  • viral mRNA produce
  • viral proteins made
95
Q

why do u need a new vaccine every year

A
  • mutation
  • new strain of pathogen
  • DIFFERENT ANTIGENS
  • og antibody no longer comp
96
Q

sugest why tb more prevalent in lower income group

A
  • homelessness
  • overcrowding
  • poor diet
97
Q

how is tb spread

A
  • droplets containing pathogen
  • coughin/sneezing
  • inhaled by uninfected individual
98
Q

how do neutrophils enter tissue fluid

A
  • lobed nucleus
  • can change shape
  • squeenze through pores in capillary walls
    HISTAMINE MAKES WALLS MORE LEAKY
99
Q

WHY ARE PHAGOCYTES Non specific

A

can break down a range of diff pathgens

100
Q

why seconday defence

A

after pathogen has entered body

101
Q

why cant bacteria be ‘immune’ (3)

A
  • bacteria dont have an immune system
    -theyre resistant
  • ony multicellular have an immune response
102
Q

how doe snuetralisation (antibodies- work

A
  • bind to toxins
  • preventing entry to host cell
103
Q

collagen cross links

A
  • covalent bonds formdd between PPC
  • staggered to avoid weak points
104
Q

which of the antibodies bind to gthe antigen

A

opsonin
agglutinin

105
Q

why one vax for each pathogen

A
  • diff path diff antigen
  • specific shape antibody must be comp to antigen
  • diff antibody needed for each pathogen
106
Q

why are antibody vaxes artifical passive

A
  • injected
  • antibodies not produced
107
Q

agglutinins stop pathogens from

A

moving and resporducing

108
Q

casparian strip why does it allow ions in endodermis

A
  • waterproof (doesnt allow water through)
  • forces water through apoplast pathway, through PLASMA MEMBRANE
  • phospholipid bilayer repels ions so need channel proteins
109
Q

xylem phloem structure similar

A
  • xylem and SIEVE TUBE ELEMTNS no nuelcues
  • both cells joined end to end
110
Q

improve counting squqares as leaf area (3)

A
  • flatten leaves
  • only count squares more than 0.5 covered
  • double leaf to give total of both surfaces
111
Q

water vapour bag method improvmenets

A
  1. condensed water reduces trnaspiration. record for shorter time
  2. temp etc not controlled. so do at the same
112
Q

if error bars overlap alot

A

sets of data quite similar

113
Q

graph (2)

A
  • units
  • title
114
Q

trnaspiartion error (3)

A
  • not all lower leaf covered
  • leaks in apparatus
  • error in reading position of meniscus
115
Q

apoplast is between

A

CELL WALLS

116
Q

if leaves are diff sizes how to compare transpiration

A
  • calc area
  • compare transpiratin per unit area
117
Q

why might a potometer readin be higher (4)

A
  • bubble not at starting position
  • misread rule
  • time too long
  • light, temp, air movement etc increased
118
Q

why x apparatus ove the toher

A
  • higher resolution so less uncertainty
119
Q

POTOMETER ASSUMPTION

A

water uptake = transpiration

120
Q

airtight potometer DURING EXPERIMENT

A
  1. dont allow bubble to move too far -> so bubble doesnt reenter xylem. can be resued
  2. submerge end of potometer in water -> prevent air entering
  3. keep shoot still -> avoid breaking continous water column
121
Q

hydrophyte adaptations (2)

A
  • many stomata (max ge) and on top surface (gas conc higher in air than water)
  • thin waxy cuticle -> waste of wax production
122
Q

transporting glucose in phloem

A

CONVERTRED TO SUCROSE

123
Q

why is sucrose trnasported (2)

A
  • soluble so can be trnasported in sap
  • retalively unreactive, not used for respiration during transport
124
Q

how can u be a source anda sink

A
  • store and release carbs when beeded
  • root and leaf, can act as both at diff times of year
125
Q

disssecting plant stem

A
  • cut a thin cross section using a scalpel
  • put sample in water so it doesnt dry out
  • stain with TBO (toluidine blue o)
  • rinse in water and put on slide
126
Q

full phloem adaptations

A
  • sieve tube elements living, joined end to end to form sieve tubes
  • NO ORGANELLES, LITTLE CYTOPLASM -> max capacity for tranpsorting assimilates
  • having no orgs etc means theyre next to a COMPANION CELL, nucleu snad LOTS of mitochondria and ribososmes to produce plasma membrane proteins + energy for active loading
  • sieve tube element and cc connected via plasmodesmata -> allows sucrose and assimilates to diffuse from cc into ste
  • end of each sieve tube element has a sieve plate. perforations to allow movement of assimilates
127
Q

sclerenchyma purpose

A

support to the stem

128
Q

in the stem the xylem is

A

ON THE INSIDE

129
Q

in the root the xylem is

A

star shaped w the phloem in between

130
Q

in the leaf teh zylem is

A

at the top of the vascular bundle

131
Q

main 3 plant physical defences

A
  • waxy cuticle
  • cellulose extra lignified
  • callose deposition between cell wal and cell surface memrane
  • tallose deposition in the xylem
132
Q

fish v mammal circulatory blurt 6 marker

A

SIMILAR
- closed
- heart
- carry o2 w haemoglobin
FISH:
- single
- 2 chambers
- blood passes through TWO sets of capillaries before returning to heart
- lower BP
- so less efficient at syppling o2 to tissues
- but have a lower metabolic rate so is irrelevant

133
Q

small lumenin artery …

A

maintains pressure

134
Q

b;lood clotting

A
  • collagen exposed to blood + air causes clotting response
  • cascade of enzymes
  • SOLUBLE fibrinogen -> insoluble fibrin
  • mesh, traps platelets
  • clot prevents bleeding
  • DRIES to form a scab
  • prevents entry of pathogens
135
Q

inflammation

A
  • infection by pathogen
  • mast cells detect + release histamine
  • vasodilation of ARTERIOLEDS, more blood to area and hot
  • capillary walls more leaky, more tissue fluid formed -> swelling
  • morephagocytess to area for phagocytosis
136
Q

lymph nodes swelling

A

after inflaamtion ….
- excess tissue fluid drained to LYMPH VESSELS
- pathogens in TF enter lymph fluid
- transportred in lymph system to lymph nodes
- phagocytosis etc causes swelling of lymph nodes

137
Q

calibrate graticule and stage micrometer

A
  • put stage micrometer on stage and focus lens
  • align eyepeice graticule
  • measure how many divisions in sm in 1 epu
138
Q

why do insect hav e a tracheal system not rely on blood

A
  • EFFICIENCY: diffusion of gases faster than liquids, distance too great to supply enough o2 for active tissues by diffusion etc etc
  • OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM-> cannot easily direct blood flow to tissues in need
  • blood flow affected by body movements ; transport of o2 unreliable
139
Q

phagocyte adapttions (6)

A
  • receptors on plasma memvrabe to bind to opsnonin / specfiic antigen
  • lobed nucelus -> sqeueze through narrow capillary gaps
  • well developed cytoskeleton, CHANGE SHAPE to engulf pathogen+ move around lysosomes
  • many lysosomes containing many hyrodolytic enzymes
  • many mitochondroa, lors of ar
    -many ribosomes to synthesis enzymes

bio (16 decks)

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