Week 24 Flashcards
How do William James and Charles Taylor describe the self?
James sees it as both the knower (“I”) and the known (“Me”), while Taylor views it as a reflexive project we manage and improve.
What are the three ways the “I” encounters the “Me”?
As a social actor, a motivated agent, and an autobiographical author.
What do the three self-views represent?
The social actor (roles & behaviors), the motivated agent (goals & desires), and the autobiographical author (life story & identity).
Why does the human “I” first see the “Me” as a social actor?
Because evolution prioritized social acceptance and status for survival and reproduction.
When does the sense of self as a social actor emerge, and how is it expressed?
Around 18 months, toddlers recognize themselves in mirrors, use words like “me” and “mine,” and begin to experience social emotions like embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride.
How do classic psychological theories explain the development of the self in the second year of life?
Freud saw it as the emergence of the ego, or executive self. Erikson linked it to developing autonomy through early trust and attachment. Mead argued that self-awareness arises as the I recognizes the Me through social feedback, with others acting as mirrors that reflect the self.
How does self-perception develop in childhood?
Young children start with simple traits (e.g., “nice,” “helpful”), but by late childhood, they describe themselves using complex traits and social roles, aligning with the Big Five personality traits.
How do traits and roles contribute to the self as a social actor?
Traits reflect perceived consistencies in social performance and overall acting style, while roles capture the quality of important relationships, together shaping one’s social reputation.
What is the self as social actor, and social representation?
Self as social actor: The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances may be construed in terms of more or less consistent self-ascribed traits and social roles.
Social representation: The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor. Actors also have their own conceptions of what they imagine their respective social reputations indeed are in the eyes of others.
- if you have ever tried hard to change yourself, you may have taken aim at your social reputaiton, targeting your central traits or your social roles
How does the sense of self as a motivated agent develop, and develop throughout childhood?
While infants act with goals, true self-awareness as an intentional agent emerges around age 4 with the development of theory of mind—the understanding that people, including oneself, are driven by inner desires and goals.
Around ages 5 to 7, children become more goal-directed and intentional, reinforced by schooling. Their self-esteem is shaped by their success in achieving valued goals.
How does the self as a motivated agent evolve in adolescence and adulthood?
Adolescents explore and commit to life goals and values, forming an identity.
In adulthood, identity remains flexible, adapting to new goals, relationships, and life circumstances.
What is the age 5-to-7 shift?
Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years that result in the child’s developing a more purposeful, planful, and goal-directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a motivated agent.
What does it mean to take on the role of a motivated agent in self-change?
A motivated agent is someone who strives to change aspects of themselves. Changing traits or roles targets the social actor, while changing values or life goals engages the motivated agent.
What is the “I” vs the “Me”
The I:
The self as knower, the sense of the self as a subject who encounters (knows, works on) itself (the Me).
The Me:
The self as known, the sense of the self as the object or target of the I’s knowledge and work.
What is narrative identity?
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose. Beginning in late adolescence, people craft self-defining stories that reconstruct the past and imagine the future to explain how the person came to be the person that he or she is becoming.
What is autobiographical reasoning, when is it developed?
The ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one’s own personal experiences.
What is the self as autobiographical author?
The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and imagines the future in order to articulate an integrative narrative that provides life with some measure of temporal continuity and purpose.
What are redemptive narratives?
Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced status or state.
In American culture, redemptive life stories are highly prized as models for the good self, as in classic narratives of atonement, upward mobility, liberation, and recovery.
What is the third standpoint of selfhood that emerges in adolescence and early adulthood, and how does it relate to identity formation?
The autobiographical author, which constructs a narrative identity integrating past, present, and future. This process, described by Erikson (1963), helps achieve a sense of temporal continuity in life.
What is narrative identity, and why is it important?
Narrative identity is an internalized and evolving story of the self that reconstructs the past and anticipates the future, giving life unity, meaning, and purpose. It helps explain personal motivations and behaviors over time.
How do storytelling abilities develop from childhood to adolescence?
By age 5 or 6, children can tell personal stories, and by the end of childhood, they understand biographical sequencing.
Adolescents develop autobiographical reasoning, linking past experiences to present identity and future goals.
How do adolescents and young adults refine their narrative identity?
They share stories, receive feedback, edit their narratives, and integrate new experiences, continuously shaping their self-concept. Storytelling helps the “I” make sense of the evolving “Me.”
How does culture influence narrative identity?
Culture provides common plot lines and themes that individuals selectively incorporate into their life stories. In American culture, redemptive narratives (e.g., “rags to riches”) are especially prominent.
How does storytelling contribute to self-transformation?
It allows individuals to reinterpret experiences, reshape their identity, and create new meanings. This process is central to therapy, religious conversions, and personal growth.
What are the three stages of self-development, and how do they contribute to knowing oneself in mature adulthood?
Selves develop through three stages:
- Social Actor – Recognizing and performing self-ascribed traits and roles in social contexts.
- Motivated Agent – Setting and pursuing self-determined goals and values.
- Autobiographical Author – Constructing a life story that integrates the past, present, and future.
To “know thyself” in adulthood is to successfully navigate all three stages.
The fact that different parts of the self impact each other—that the “I” resonates back on the “me”—supports the Greek notion that the self is inherently ______.
reflexive.
empirical.
self-perpetuating.
interdependent.
self-fulfilling
reflexive
Neshama is only 4 years old, and her grandmother says to her, “Sweetheart, tell me something about yourself!” Which of the following is Neshama likely to say at her age?
I think that I’m really shy..
I hope that someday we get a dog..
I’m nice to people except my annoying brother..
I’m going to be in kindergarten when I turn 6..
I have long brown hair..
I have long brown hair
According to the theory of Erik Erikson, the search for ______is the primary developmental challenge of the teenage years, and this “crisis” extends through adolescence and into young adulthood.
identity
Paulo is in his mid-twenties, and recently he has been considering his life. He thinks back over all of his past experiences as well as what he wants to accomplish in the future. The combination of these actions produces a(n) ______that may be revised several times as his life continues.
internal locus of control.
narrative identity.
autobiographical constancy.
life review.
integrated personality
narrative identity
what is narrative identity?
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose. Beginning in late adolescence, people craft self-defining stories that reconstruct the past and imagine the future to explain how the person came to be the person that he or she is becoming.
What is operationalization?
The process of defining a concept so that it can be measured. In psychology, this often happens by identifying related concepts or behaviors that can be more easily measured.
What are the key differences between objective and subjective social variables in measuring social relationships?
Objective social variables are fact-based and measurable, focusing on the presence, frequency, and structure of relationships (e.g., marital status, number of friends, social network size, and social integration).
Subjective social variables are based on personal opinions and feelings, assessing perceived social support, relationship quality, and satisfaction (e.g., quality of marriage, level of conflict, or support received).
Researchers often use daily diary methodology to capture real-time social interactions, combining objective and subjective measures for a more comprehensive understanding of social relationships.
What is subjective well-being, and what are its three components?
Subjective well-being is the psychological term for happiness and consists of three components:
- High life satisfaction – Positive evaluations of one’s overall life (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”).
- Positive feelings – Frequent experiences of positive emotions (e.g., peace, joy).
- Low negative feelings – Infrequent experiences of negative emotions (e.g., sadness, anger).
These components are typically measured using self-report scales.
How is the physical dimension of well-being defined, and what aspects of health do researchers consider?
The physical dimension of well-being is best defined as one’s health, which includes being free from illness or infirmity. Researchers consider several aspects of health, including:
- Injury, disease, and mortality – Direct indicators of physical health.
- Physiological indicators – Measures such as blood pressure and immune system strength.
- Health behaviors – Lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and smoking.
These variables help researchers understand the impact of relationships on well-being.
: What are the two major elements researchers consider when studying the connection between social relationships and well-being?
Researchers focus on:
- The presence of relationships – Whether individuals have social connections, such as friendships, family ties, or romantic partnerships.
- The quality of relationships – How supportive, satisfying, or stressful these relationships are.
These factors help researchers narrow their focus when studying well-being across different populations.
True or False: The study by Tay & Diener (2011) found that having many friends is necessary for happiness.
False
The study found that having even a few high-quality social relationships was consistently linked to subjective well-being across people of all ages from 123 nations. This suggests that happiness is not about having many friends but rather about having at least a few close, meaningful connections.
What is ostracism. What brain areas are involved?
Being excluded and ignored by others.
Research has even shown that the areas of the brain that process physical pain when we are injured are the same areas that process emotional pain when we are ostracized
What is shunning?
The act of avoiding or ignoring a person, and withholding all social interaction for a period of time. Shunning generally occurs as a punishment and is temporary.
How do social relationships impact health?
Both the quality and quantity of social relationships influence health. Larger social networks and high-quality relationships are beneficial, while small networks and poor-quality relationships can be harmful. Social support reduces stress, which is linked to various health problems, and friends/partners often promote healthy behaviors.
What is a confidante?
A trusted person with whom secrets and vulnerabilities can be shared.
T or F: Research findings suggest that having a single confidante—a person with whom you can be authentic and trust not to exploit your secrets and vulnerabilities—is more important to happiness than having a large social network
True
What is Machiavellianism?
Being cunning, strategic, or exploitative in one’s relationships. Named after Machiavelli, who outlined this way of relating in his book, The Prince.
Specifically, research has shown that employees who rate their supervisors high on the so-called “dark triad”—________, _________, and __________—reported greater psychological distress at work, as well as less job satisfaction
Specifically, research has shown that employees who rate their supervisors high on the so-called “dark triad”—psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism—reported greater psychological distress at work, as well as less job satisfaction
A person with a strong need for admiration and a lack of empathy would be displaying ______.
shunning.
ostracism.
narcissism.
social integration.
Machiavellianism
narcissism.
The psychiatrist asked Maria how she felt about the quality of her marriage; a type of ______ variable.
subjective social.
correlational.
empathetic.
health behavior.
operationalized
subjective social.
What is the name of the scientific term used to describe how people experience the quality of their lives in terms of life satisfaction?
subjective well-being.
relationship satisfaction.
social integration.
life confidence.
happiness
subjective well-being.
Relationships help satisfy our deep-seated, psychological need to ______.
work.
empathize.
belong.
gain approval.
reproduce
belong.
How do social psychologists, anthropologists and cultural psychology differ in their study of culture?
Social psychologists study cultural influences on emotions, identity, relationships, and decisions, often using experimental methods.
Anthropologists, in contrast, conduct ethnographic studies, observing cultures and conducting interviews to understand them from within.
Cultural psychology blends these approaches, often relying on interviews.
- cultural psychological approaches place an emphasis on the participants’ own definitions, language, and understanding of their own lives.
What is ethnocentric bias?
Being unduly guided by the beliefs of the culture you’ve grown up in, especially when this results in a misunderstanding or disparagement of unfamiliar cultures.
One problem with cross-cultural studies is that they are vulnerable to ethnocentric bias. This means that the researcher who designs the study might be influenced by personal biases that could affect research outcomes—without even being aware of it.
What is ethnocentric bias in cross-cultural studies?
Ethnocentric bias occurs when researchers unknowingly let their own cultural background shape their study design, assumptions, and interpretations.
This can lead to inaccurate conclusions about other cultures.
For example, a researcher from an individualistic society might assume that personal freedom is essential for happiness, overlooking that in some cultures, fulfilling group obligations is considered more important for well-being.
What is situational identity?
Being guided by different cultural influences in different situations, such as home versus workplace, or formal versus informal roles.
What are the key features of culture that shape human behavior and identity?
The four key features of culture are:
- Versatility – Culture is adaptable and can change based on context, leading to situational identities.
- Sharing – Culture is created through shared knowledge and social interactions.
- Accumulation – Cultural knowledge builds over generations, preserving both ancient traditions and modern innovations.
- Patterns – Cultural behaviors and thought processes follow predictable, systematic patterns that vary across societies.
What is enculturation?
The uniquely human form of learning that is taught by one generation to another.
What are cultural scripts?
Learned guides for how to behave appropriately in a given social situation. These reflect cultural norms and widely accepted values.
What are the three main ways to understand culture?
Culture can be understood in three key ways:
- Progressive Cultivation – Focuses on intentional activities aimed at refinement, such as learning music or appreciating art. This view, dominant until the mid-19th century, was often associated with upper-class sophistication.
- Ways of Life – Emphasizes shared patterns of beliefs and behaviors that persist across generations, often linked to national or regional identities. It highlights both cultural similarities and variations within and between nations.
- Shared Learning (Enculturation) – Views culture as a dynamic process where individuals learn and internalize cultural norms through social interactions, such as children being raised in a society or immigrants adapting to new cultural environments.
Why is understanding culture as a learned pattern of behaviors important?
Recognizing culture as learned is important for three reasons:
Explains Group Conflicts – Different cultural norms lead to misunderstandings, such as generational differences in technology use or differing views on wearing a hijab.
Encourages Cultural Appreciation – Learning about unfamiliar traditions fosters understanding and reduces prejudice, like non-Muslims learning the significance of the hijab.
Promotes Self-Awareness – Realizing that cultural norms shape personal views (e.g., attitudes toward modesty and public nudity) can help individuals reassess their perspectives for personal or social benefit.
What are the vertical and horizontal dimensions of individualism and collectivism?
These dimensions describe social status within a society:
Vertical societies – Emphasize hierarchy, where some individuals have more status and privileges than others.
Horizontal societies – Emphasize equality, where people have relatively equal status and privileges.
Both dimensions can apply to individualistic or collectivistic cultures.
Self-construal
The extent to which the self is defined as independent or as relating to others.
- the way that ppl define he way they “fit” in relation to ohers
Individualists more likley to define themselves in terms of an independent self, whereas collectivist interdependent
What is self-construal, and how does it differ in individualistic and collectivistic cultures?
Self-construal refers to how people define themselves in relation to others:
Independent self (Individualistic cultures):
- independent self
- People see themselves as unique individuals with stable personal traits that drive behavior.
- “I am honest”, “I am talkative”
Interdependent self (Collectivistic cultures):
- interdependent self
- People see themselves as defined by their social context, with behavior shaped by relationships rather than fixed internal traits.
- “I am a good friend”, “I am a leader on my team”
How does the experience of anger differ between individualistic and collectivistic cultures?
Individualistic cultures (Independent self): Anger arises when personal wants, needs, or values are violated, often leading to feelings of being treated unfairly.
Collectivistic cultures (Interdependent self): Anger is seen as unpleasant because it disrupts social harmony and relationships, rather than being purely a personal offense.
What is cultural relativism?
The idea that cultural norms and values of a society can only be understood on their own terms or in their own context.
Take for example, the common practice of same-sex friends in India walking in public while holding hands: this is a common behavior and a sign of connectedness between two people. In England, by contrast, holding hands is largely limited to romantically involved couples, and often suggests a sexual relationship. These are simply two different ways of understanding the meaning of holding hands. Someone who does not take a _________ view might be tempted to see their own understanding of this behavior as superior and, perhaps, the foreign practice as being immoral.
relativistic
The people of Mateo’s village all work together and share their food. All of the village members have equal status in their community. What type of culture is this?
vertical individualist.
vertical collectivist.
progressive cultivation.
horizontal collectivist.
horizontal individualist
horizontal collectivist.
When students wear a cap and gown and receive a printed diploma in front of friends and family, this is an example of:
self-construal.
a cultural script.
a ritual.
collectivism.
ceremonial learning
a ritual.
A person’s ____________ refers to their psychological sense of being male or female. In contrast, a person’s ______________ is the direction of their emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes.
A person’s gender identity refers to their psychological sense of being male or female.
In contrast, a person’s sexual orientation is the direction of their emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes.
What are some actual gender differences in language skills and temperament?
Language skills: Girls develop language skills earlier and know more words, but this difference does not persist long-term.
Communication styles: Girls are more likely to offer praise, agree, and elaborate, while boys are more likely to assert opinions and offer criticisms.
Temperament: Boys are slightly less able to suppress inappropriate responses and more likely to blurt things out.
At what ages do children develop gender awareness and stereotypes?
By age 1: Can distinguish faces by gender.
By age 2: Can label others’ gender and sort objects into gender-typed categories.
By age 3: Can consistently identify their own gender but believe it is determined by external attributes.
Ages 3–6: Develop gender constancy (understanding that gender is stable) and form rigid gender stereotypes about play, traits, and occupations.
Ages 8–9: Develop cognitive flexibility, allowing for more flexible thinking about gender roles and stereotypes.
What is developmental intergroup heory?
Postulates that adults’ heavy focus on gender leads children to pay attention to gender as a key source of information about themselves and others, to seek out any possible gender differences, and to form rigid stereotypes based on gender that are subsequently difficult to change
What is gender schema theory, and how does it influence memory?
Gender schema theory suggests that children actively learn and internalize gender roles by organizing behaviors, activities, and attributes into gender categories (schemas). These schemas shape what people notice, remember, and misremember:
- People are more likely to recall schema-consistent information (e.g., men as firefighters, women as caregivers).
- People often misremember schema-inconsistent details (e.g., recalling a woman as cooking instead of repairing a stove).
- Over time, this selective memory strengthens gender schemas, reinforcing stereotypes.
How does social learning theory explain the development of gender roles?
Social learning theory suggests that gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling:
- Reinforcement & Punishment: Children are rewarded for gender-conforming behaviors and discouraged from gender-nonconforming behaviors.
- Modeling: Children observe and imitate gendered behaviors from adults and older peers.
- Limitations: Research indicates parents reinforce gender-appropriate play but largely treat boys and girls similarly, offering less support for this theory compared to gender schema theory.
What is gender discrimination, and how does it relate to sexual harassment?
Gender discrimination refers to the differential treatment of individuals based on their gender, often as a consequence of gender stereotypes. It can be both a cause and result of gender differences. When gender-based treatment involves unwanted sexual behaviors or comments, it is referred to as sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment commonly includes unwanted touching, inappropriate comments, body part ratings, jokes, or name-calling related to sexual orientation, and most boys and girls experience some form of it by the end of high school.
What is ambivalent sexism, and how does it contribute to gender inequalities?
Ambivalent sexism refers to the complex nature of gender attitudes, where women are seen through both positive and negative lenses. It has two components:
- Hostile sexism: Negative attitudes towards women, viewing them as inferior and incompetent relative to men.
- Benevolent sexism: The perception that women need to be protected, supported, and adored by men, which can be seen as more socially acceptable than hostile sexism.
Both components of ambivalent sexism contribute to gender inequalities by reinforcing stereotypical gender roles and expectations. Across cultures, males are often associated with stronger and more active traits, while females are linked to more passive and nurturing qualities
difference b/w ethnographic studies vs cultural psychology
ethnographic studies:
- research that emphasizes field data collection and that examines questions that atempt to understand culture from it’s own context and point of view
cultural psychology:
- an approach to researching culture that emphasizes the use of interiews and observation as a means of understadning culture from its own point of view
Heterotypic, homotypic, absolute and differential stability
Attribute example: extraversion
Heterotypic: this really gets at the idea that there is psychological consistency across time BUT how the attribute displays itself is different
- the behaviours/presentation of the attribute are different
Before: jumping on trampoline (extraversion)
After: giving lots of speeches in crowds (extraversion)
Homotypic: Same behaviours/presentation of the attribute across time
Before: jumping on trampoline (extraversion)
After: jumping on trampoline (extraversion)
Absolute: it could be that levels of an attribute change over time - not just the presentation of the attribute, but the level/amount
- eg, extraversion goes down w age
Differential: captures the idea that your rank as compared to others holds over time (or may change)
- if you did a race with your friends when you were kids and won, you would also win this race with the same friends when youre old
