Week 10 Readings Flashcards
What aspect of attention refers to the conscious and often voluntary control over what we focus on?
The conscious nature of attention.
What historical event spurred psychologists to study sustained attention?
World War II, when it was crucial to remain highly alert and accurate while watching radar screens for enemy planes.
What modern task requires a high level of sustained attention similar to that needed for watching radar screens in WWII?
TSA agents searching for prohibited items in carry-on luggage.
What does the term “sustained attention” or “vigilance” refer to?
The ability to maintain focus and alertness over a prolonged period, especially while searching for rare events.
What does “divided attention” refer to in psychological studies of attention?
The ability to attend to multiple sources of information simultaneously.
What is “spatial attention” in the context of psychological studies?
How we focus on a specific part of our environment and shift our attention to other locations.
What does “selective attention” involve?
Focusing on certain information while intentionally blocking out other distractions.
Why is selective attention important in understanding how we process information?
It helps us manage limited cognitive resources by prioritizing important stimuli.
What classic scenario is used to illustrate the concept of selective attention?
The cocktail party scenario
How did early researchers study selective attention in the laboratory?
By using dichotic listening and shadowing tasks.
What is dichotic listening?
A situation where two different messages are presented simultaneously, one to each ear.
What is the purpose of shadowing in a dichotic listening task?
To control which message the individual focuses on by having them repeat back one of the messages as they hear it.
In a dichotic listening task, what might happen if a story about a camping trip is presented to one ear and a story about Abe Lincoln to the other ear?
The person must try to shadow one story (e.g., repeat the camping story) without being distracted by the story about Abe Lincoln.
What do dichotic listening tasks help researchers understand about attention?
How well a person can focus on one stream of information while ignoring a competing message.
How well can people perform the shadowing task in selective attention experiments?
They can usually report the content of the attended message but not the content of the ignored one.
What aspects of the ignored message can people typically recall?
Basic physical characteristics, like whether the voice was male or female or the pitch of the speech.
What are some surprising findings about the ignored message in dichotic listening tasks? What do these findings suggest about our capacity to process information for meaning?
People often do not notice changes in the language of the ignored message or when a word is repeated over 35 times.
We have a limited capacity for processing information, which emphasizes the importance of the selection process.
What is Broadbent’s Filter Model, and what experiments was it based on?
It was developed by Donald Broadbent in 1958, based on dichotic listening tasks and other experiments. It explains how selection in attention occurs.
How does Broadbent’s Filter Model describe the selection process?
Information is selected based on physical features, such as the sensory channel, voice pitch, or visual characteristics like color and font.
What does Broadbent’s Filter Model say about the processing of unattended information?
People are vaguely aware of the physical features of ignored information but have no knowledge of its meaning. The unattended information is not processed beyond basic sensory analysis.
How is selected information processed according to Broadbent’s model?
The filter only allows information from one channel (e.g., one ear) to be processed further, transferring it to short-term memory and conscious awareness for meaning.
What experiment did Anne Treisman conduct involving dichotic listening?
She presented two different stories to each ear and had participants shadow one story. As the stories switched ears, participants often followed the content before realizing and correcting their focus.
What did Treisman’s results suggest about unattended information?
They suggest that we monitor unattended information to some degree based on its meaning, contradicting the idea that it is completely blocked.
How does Treisman’s Attenuation Theory differ from Broadbent’s Filter Model?
Treisman proposed that unattended information is not completely blocked but weakened or attenuated. Meaningful information in the unattended ear can still be processed if it is particularly relevant.
How does the Attenuation Theory explain the processing of meaningful information in the unattended ear?
If the unattended information is highly meaningful (like hearing your name), it can pass through the attenuated filter and be processed for meaning.
What does the late selection model by Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) propose about attention?
It suggests that all information, even from the unattended ear, is processed for meaning, but only task-relevant information reaches conscious awareness.
How does the late selection model differ from earlier selective attention models?
Unlike models suggesting that only selected information is processed for meaning, the late selection model proposes full processing of all information before conscious awareness.
How is the late selection model related to subliminal perception?
It supports the idea that messages can be processed for meaning without conscious awareness.
What is a key difference in the placement of the selective filter between early and late selection models?
In the late selection model, the filter occurs after the analysis of meaning, while in early selection models, it occurs before meaning is analyzed.
Why did researchers develop multiple models of selective attention?
Because no single model explained all the data, as some evidence showed complete blocking of nonselected information, while other studies showed that it could be processed for meaning.
What does the multimode model of attention propose?
It suggests that the stage of selection can change depending on the task, allowing flexibility in how we process information.
How did Johnston and Heinz (1978) contribute to the multimode model?
They demonstrated that selection can occur early, with minimal processing of unattended content, or later, with full processing of content, depending on task demands.
What is an advantage of early selection in attention?
It is easy, automatic, rapid, and requires little effort, such as attending to physical characteristics like voice pitch.
Why might late selection be used despite being more effortful?
It allows us to process the meaning of all messages, offering flexibility in attention based on our goals and the complexity of the task.
How have the principles of selective attention been tested in the visual domain?
Neisser (1979) superimposed two semi-transparent video clips and asked viewers to focus on one, finding that viewers often missed events in the other video. This phenomenon relates to inattentional blindness.
What did Simons and Chabris (1999) contribute to research on visual selective attention?
They expanded on Neisser’s work using similar techniques and highlighted the concept of inattentional blindness, sparking significant new research in the field.
What is inattentional blindness?
It is a phenomenon where individuals fail to notice visible but unexpected events when their attention is focused elsewhere.
What is subliminal perception, and why is it intriguing?
Subliminal perception is the idea that stimuli presented below the threshold for awareness can influence thoughts or behavior, like hidden messages in ads or music.
What controversy surrounds claims of subliminal perception, such as the “Eat Popcorn” study?
The study was famously fabricated, leading to skepticism about such claims. Psychologists have since worked to verify if subliminal perception can truly influence behavior.
What challenges exist in studying subliminal perception?
Establishing a clear threshold for consciousness and understanding the complexity of stimuli that can affect behavior remain difficult. Distinctions between objective and subjective thresholds are particularly important.
Is there evidence supporting the impact of subliminal perception on behavior?
Yes, there is some evidence that people can be influenced by stimuli they aren’t aware of, but the extent and complexity of this influence are still debated.
What was the aim of Spelke, Hirst, and Neisser’s (1976) classic study on divided attention?
To examine whether people can perform two tasks simultaneously, such as dictation and reading for comprehension, and how dividing attention affects performance.
How are divided attention tasks typically designed and evaluated?
Each task is first evaluated separately to establish baseline performance, then performance is measured when both tasks are performed simultaneously to see if attention can be divided without disrupting performance.
What does a decrease in performance during a divided attention task suggest?
It suggests that cognitive demands are too high to perform both tasks simultaneously without disruption, even if attention can be divided or switched.
What is the difference between divided attention and task switching?
Divided attention involves performing two tasks at once, while task switching involves shifting between tasks. Task switching is cognitively demanding and can impair performance.
Why is texting while driving dangerous, and how does it affect driving performance?
Texting distracts not only because of occupied hands or eyes but also because it significantly increases cognitive demands, impairing driving performance. This leads to slower responses and decreased awareness of surroundings (Strayer, Watson, & Drews, 2011).
Do cell phone conversations, even with a hands-free device, impair driving?
Yes, whether using a handheld or hands-free device, cell phone conversations impair driving by reducing awareness, such as slower reaction times and difficulty noticing key visual cues like brake lights (Strayer & Johnston, 2001).
How does cognitive distraction like cell phone use cause inattentional blindness in drivers?
Cognitive distractions, such as talking on a cell phone, cause inattentional blindness, meaning drivers fail to notice objects they look at, as their cognitive resources are diverted (Strayer & Drews, 2007; Simons & Chabris, 1999).
Only about 2% of people can truly multitask without impairing their driving performance, even though many believe they can safely do so (Watson & Strayer, 2010).
