Week 23 Flashcards
When and how did social psychology emerge as a scientific discipline?
Who played a key role in refining social psychology as an experimental science?
Social psychology began when scientists systematically measured human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Kruglanski & Stroebe, 2011). Early experiments on group behavior were conducted before 1900 (Triplett, 1898), and the first textbooks were published in 1908 (McDougall & Ross).
Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger refined the experimental approach in the 1940s and 1950s. Lewin, known as “the father of social psychology,” emphasized dynamic interactions among people, while Festinger’s 1954 book Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences promoted measuring variables, using lab experiments, and sometimes deceiving participants to test hypotheses.
How did World War II influence social psychology research?
Researchers sought to understand obedience under Adolf Hitler, leading to studies on conformity by Sherif (1936) and Asch (1952), obedience by Milgram (1974), and the impact of social roles by Zimbardo in his 1973 prison experiment. These studies showed the power of conformity, authority, and social settings in shaping behavior.
What is social cognition?
The study of how people think about the social world.
an understanding of how our knowledge about our social worlds develops through experience and the influence of these knowledge structures on memory, information processing, attitudes, and judgment.
What is social neuroscience?
The study of how our social behavior both influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain
What is a social situation?
the people with whom we interact every day.
These people include our friends and family, our fraternity brothers or sorority sisters, our religious groups, the people we see on TV or read about or interact with on the web, as well as people we think about, remember, or even imagine.
What is social influence?
The process through which other people change our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and through which we change theirs
What is the person-situation interaction? Who formalized this?
The joint influence of person variables and situational variables
- Formalized by Kurt Lewin
Behaviour = f (person, social situation)
Lewin’s equation indicates that the behavior of a given person at any given time is a function of (depends on) both the characteristics of the person and the influence of the social situation.
How does the social situation influence human behavior?
Social situations shape behavior by teaching norms, values, and expectations (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Even when alone, internalized social rules guide actions, such as obeying traffic laws.
What is a key principle of social psychology regarding personality and behavior?
The social situation is often a stronger determinant of behavior than personality. Social psychologists focus on situational influences, such as authority and group pressure, rather than just individual traits (Milgram, 1974).
Why do people often underestimate the power of social situations?
People tend to believe actions are based on personal choices rather than external influences, even though research shows that extreme behaviors, like cult suicides or terrorism, are often shaped by social contexts (Gilbert & Malone, 1995).
What is social support?
The perception or actuality that we have a social network that can help us in times of need and provide us with a variety of useful resources (e.g., advice, love, money).
How do social exclusion and ostracism affect individuals?
Social exclusion causes emotional pain that can be more intense than physical pain (Chen et al., 2008). It increases the desire to reconnect and heightens sensitivity to social cues (Bernstein et al., 2008; Maner et al., 2007).
Ostracism, such as the silent treatment or Amish Meidung, is used to enforce conformity and can lower self-esteem, especially in adolescents (Sebastian et al., 2010; Bastian & Haslam, 2010).
What are social norms? How do they develop?
The ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate
Social norms are shared beliefs about appropriate thinking, feeling, and behavior within a group (Asch, 1955; Cialdini, 1993). They develop through social influence and guide customs, traditions, and societal expectations.
How does social influence shape behavior?
Social influence can be passive, such as adopting beliefs and behaviors unconsciously, or active, where individuals deliberately try to change others’ opinions (e.g., jury persuasion, advertising, cult messages).
Individualism -
Collectivisim -
Western society, east asian
Individualism - Western society
Collectivisim - East-Asian
research conducted by Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues (Uchida, Norasakkunkit, & Kitayama, 2004) found that _________ were more likely to experience happiness as a result of their connections with other people, whereas _________ were more likely to experience happiness as a result of their own personal accomplishments.
East-asians, Westerners
and why might this be?
research conducted by Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues (Uchida, Norasakkunkit, & Kitayama, 2004) found that East Asians were more likely than to experience happiness as a result of their connections with other people, whereas Westerners were more likely to experience happiness as a result of their own personal accomplishments.
Because of cultural norms - more collectivist in East Asia, more individualist in Western society
How does social psychology help us understand behavior?
It explains behavior through person-situation interaction, evolutionary adaptation, and the influence of social norms, which shape thoughts, feelings, and actions.
How do cultural differences impact social behavior?
Cultural orientations, such as individualism vs. collectivism, influence everyday interactions and societal norms.
What does the term attitude mean in social psychology?
social psychologists reserve the term attitude to refer to our relatively enduring evaluation of something, where the something is called the attitude object.
attitude: A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.
attitude object: A person, a product, or a social group
What are attitudes in social psychology?
Attitudes are evaluations that reflect preferences for or against an object, expressed through likes, dislikes, love, or hate.
They connect the self-concept to the attitude object and are a core part of identity.
How do people develop attitudes?
Attitudes form through genetic inheritance, direct and indirect experiences, media influence, and social interactions. Some attitudes are widely shared (e.g., fear of snakes), while others (e.g., music preferences) are more individualized.
What are the three components of attitudes?
Attitudes consist of:
- Affect (emotional response, e.g., “I love chocolate ice cream”)
- Behavior (actions, e.g., “I frequently eat chocolate ice cream”)
- Cognition (thoughts and beliefs, e.g., “Chocolate ice cream has a rich taste”)
Some attitudes are more driven by one component than others.
Which component of attitudes is generally the strongest and most important?
The affective component (emotions and feelings) is generally the strongest and most important in shaping attitudes, including decisions like voting.
Why do human beings hold attitudes?
Attitudes are useful because they help us make quick decisions about behaviors, people, and objects, guiding us on what to approach or avoid. This ability has had evolutionary benefits.
How do social psychologists measure attitudes?
Attitudes are measured using self-report surveys, physiological measures (such as arousal and facial expressions), implicit measures like the Implicit Association Test (IAT), and neuroimaging techniques that identify brain regions involved in attitude processing.
What is attitude strength, and why is it important?
Attitude strength refers to how quickly an attitude comes to mind and how much it influences behavior. Strong attitudes are important because they are held with confidence, rarely change, and often guide actions automatically.
What role does the brain play in attitudes?
Attitudes are stored primarily in the prefrontal cortex, while the amygdala is crucial for emotional attitudes, particularly those linked to fear. Attitudes can be activated in as little as one-fifth of a second.
What determines the strength of an attitude?
The strength of an attitude is determined by its cognitive accessibility—how quickly it comes to mind, how often it is activated, and how easily it is expressed. Strong attitudes are easily recalled and guide actions automatically, often without conscious thought.
What factors make an attitude stronger?
Attitudes become stronger when:
- Direct experiences with the attitude object (especially strong positive or negative experiences).
- Direct experiences with an attitude object make the attitude stronger, as demonstrated by research where individuals who directly engaged with an object (e.g., solving puzzles) had stronger, more accessible attitudes than those who merely observed others. - Increased accessibility through thinking about, discussing, or expressing the attitude.
- Attitudes can be made stronger by increasing their accessibility, such as by thinking about, discussing, or expressing the attitude, which makes it more cognitively available and easier to act on. - Activation of the attitude in connection with the self-concept, such as in front of a mirror or camera.
How does the alignment of the ABCs (Affect, Behavior, Cognition) affect attitude strength?
Attitudes are stronger when the affective (emotional), behavioral (action), and cognitive (thoughts) components are consistent. For example, a positive attitude toward one’s country is strong because it aligns with positive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Inconsistent components, like those toward chocolate ice cream, make an attitude weaker.
What is attitude consistency?
For any given attitude object, the ABCs of affect, behavior, and cognition are normally in line with each other
The principle of attitude consistency suggests that the components of attitudes (affect, behavior, and cognition) are normally in line with each other, meaning our behavior tends to follow from our emotional and cognitive evaluations of an attitude object.
What is the theory of planned behaviour?
The relationship between attitudes and behavior is stronger in certain situations, for certain people and for certain attitudes
What factors strengthen the relationship between attitudes and behavior?
The relationship is stronger when:
The attitude is strong (expressed confidently and quickly).
There is a strong intention to perform the behavior.
The attitude and behavior occur in similar social situations.
The same components (affect or cognition) are activated when the attitude is assessed and when the behavior is performed.
The attitude is measured at a specific level rather than a general level.
The person is a low self-monitor (individuals who are less concerned with social norms and expectations).
According to the theory of planned behavior, what factors affect the attitude-behavior relationship?
According to the theory of planned behavior, factors that affect the attitude-behavior relationship include the strength of the attitude, the intention to perform the behavior, the social context of the behavior, and the accessibility of attitude components when the behavior is performed.
How does the speed of completing attitude questionnaires relate to behavior?
People who complete attitude questionnaires more quickly are more likely to act in line with their expressed attitudes, as their attitudes are stronger and more easily accessible. Conversely, people who take longer to complete the same questionnaires tend to show weaker correlations between attitudes and behavior.
Under what conditions do attitudes predict behaviors well?
Attitudes predict behaviors well under certain conditions, such as when the person has a strong attitude, a strong intention to act on the attitude, and when the social situation in which the behavior occurs matches the social situation in which the attitude is expressed.
How does intention influence the attitude-behavior relationship?
A strong intention to perform a behavior is a strong predictor of whether that behavior will occur. For example, if someone has a strong attitude toward recycling, they are more likely to intend to recycle, even if it’s difficult.
How does the social situation affect the attitude-behavior relationship?
The social situation in which attitudes are expressed and the behavior occurs matters. If the social situation where the behavior is performed is different from the situation where the attitude is expressed, the behavior may not align with the attitude. For instance, Magritte’s negative attitude toward smoking might not prevent her from trying it when she’s with friends, due to peer pressure.
Why might Magritte’s negative attitude toward smoking not predict her behavior?
Magritte’s negative attitude toward smoking might not predict her behavior because the social context in which she expresses her attitude (with her parents) is different from the social context where she might try smoking (with her friends), where peer pressure and different social norms may influence her decision.
What factors influence the consistency between attitudes and behavior?
The consistency between attitudes and behavior is influenced by the cognitive accessibility of the attitude’s affective and cognitive components. If these components are accessed differently during attitude assessment and behavior performance, the attitude-behavior relationship may be weak.
For example, in Wilson and Schooler (1991), participants who focused on cognitive aspects of their attitudes toward strawberry jams made less valid judgments compared to those who relied on their affective responses, as affective components (liking the jam) were more predictive of actual preferences.
How does the specificity of attitude measurement affect the prediction of behavior?
Attitudes predict behavior better when the attitude is measured at a level similar to the behavior being predicted.
Specific questions about behavior (e.g., “How frequently do you expect to attend church in the next month?”) are better predictors of specific behaviors than general questions (e.g., “Are you a religious person?”). For instance, Davidson and Jaccard (1979) found that asking about specific attitudes toward birth control use helped better predict actual usage than more general questions.
How does alcohol affect attitude-behavior consistency according to the MacDonald, Zanna, and Fong (1996) study?
In this study, intoxicated participants were more likely to report they would engage in unprotected sex, even though they cognitively knew it was irresponsible. This suggests that affective components (e.g., desire for sex) may override cognitive components (e.g., knowledge about safe sex) when behavior occurs in contexts like intoxication, highlighting the stronger influence of affect on behavior in certain situations.
What is self-monitoring?
Individual differences in the tendency to attend to social cues and to adjust one’s behavior to one’s social environment
Self-monitoring refers to the tendency to adjust one’s behavior based on social cues. ___ self-monitors are more influenced by social norms and are likely to adjust their behavior to fit in, making the attitude-behavior relationship weaker. ____ self-monitors are less influenced by social norms and are more likely to act in line with their attitudes, strengthening the attitude-behavior relationship.
- high, medium, low
Self-monitoring refers to the tendency to adjust one’s behavior based on social cues. HIGH self-monitors are more influenced by social norms and are likely to adjust their behavior to fit in, making the attitude-behavior relationship weaker. LOW self-monitors are less influenced by social norms and are more likely to act in line with their attitudes, strengthening the attitude-behavior relationship.
How does the communicator’s characteristics affect persuasion?
Research shows that persuasive communicators are more effective when they help recipients feel good about themselves, particularly by appealing to self-concern.
Attractive communicators are often more effective because they create positive associations and improve our mood, making us more receptive to their messages. Similarly, offering personal benefits, like free gifts, increases the likelihood of persuading others.
What are the characteristics of an effective communicator in persuasion?
Effective communicators often help recipients feel good about themselves by appealing to self-concern.
Attractive, similar, and trustworthy communicators are more persuasive. Communicators perceived as trustworthy, like celebrities or experts, are particularly influential.
Expertise can be communicated by speaking confidently and quickly. However, expertise can be undermined if the communicator is perceived as self-interested or biased.
Over time, even untrustworthy sources can influence opinions due to the sleeper effect, where the content of the message is remembered even after forgetting the source. - Called the sleeper effect
What is the sleeper effect?
Over time, even untrustworthy sources can influence opinions due to the sleeper effect, where the content of the message is remembered even after forgetting the source.
What is the difference between spontaneous attitude change and thoughtful attitude change?
Spontaneous processing is direct, quick, and often involves affective responses to the message. It happens rapidly and is influenced by emotional reactions.
Thoughtful processing is more controlled and involves a careful cognitive elaboration of the meaning of the message, requiring deeper thinking and consideration of the arguments.
The route taken in processing a message determines whether or not the message will change attitudes.
How do emotional and fear appeals work in spontaneous message processing?
Both emotional and fear appeals are effective in spontaneous message processing because they evoke strong emotional reactions that make the message more attention-grabbing and memorable.
Emotional ads, like those featuring humor or beauty, create positive affect and increase persuasion.
Fear appeals, such as those showing dangerous consequences (e.g., car accidents or lung cancer), also grab attention and focus on personal harm. Fear-based ads are especially effective when they emphasize negative outcomes for the self, like the danger of not getting a mammogram.
- However, they can backfire if they cause anxiety without offering ways for individuals to address the issue, as people need to feel they can take action to mitigate the fear.
Why are fear appeals particularly effective when they focus on self-concern?
Fear appeals that emphasize potential harm to the self are more persuasive because they tap into self-concern and create a sense of urgency. The brain responds more strongly to negative emotions, making messages highlighting personal danger, such as health risks, more impactful. Additionally, fear appeals are more effective when they offer solutions, allowing individuals to feel they can take action and address the problem, as lack of self-efficacy can reduce their effectiveness.
What is thoughtful message processing?
When we think about how the message relates to our own beliefs and goals and involves our careful consideration of whether the persuasion attempt is valid or invalid
Thoughtful message processing occurs when individuals carefully analyze a message, considering its pros and cons, and evaluating its validity. This type of processing is more likely when the topic is relevant, interesting, and there is sufficient time to think about the message. It contrasts with spontaneous processing, which is more emotional and quick, often relying on unimportant features like attractiveness or music. Thoughtful processing involves deeper cognitive elaboration and helps form strong, more resistant attitudes.
How does thoughtful message processing influence persuasion?
In thoughtful processing, individuals evaluate a message based on its alignment with their beliefs and goals. Advertisers aim to create positive thoughts about a product by highlighting its positive features while downplaying negative ones. The more positive thoughts individuals have about the product during thoughtful processing, the more likely they are to develop favorable attitudes toward it. These attitudes are also stronger and more resistant to counterpersuasion, as thoughtful processing leads to more deeply rooted beliefs and evaluations (Petty & Briñol, 2008).
Petty, Cacioppo, and Goldman (1981) found that students for whom an argument was not personally relevant based their judgments on the expertise of the source (___________ processing), whereas students for whom the decision was more relevant were more influenced by the quality of the message (__________ processing).
Petty, Cacioppo, and Goldman (1981) found that students for whom an argument was not personally relevant based their judgments on the expertise of the source (spontaneous processing), whereas students for whom the decision was more relevant were more influenced by the quality of the message (thoughtful processing).
What factors determine whether we process a message thoughtfully or spontaneously?
The route we take—thoughtful or spontaneous—depends on both motivation and ability. If we care about the topic, have time, and can understand the message, we are more likely to process it thoughtfully. In contrast, if we don’t care, are distracted, or find the message complex, we may process it spontaneously, relying on cues like the communicator’s attractiveness or expertise. Successful persuaders tailor their message based on these factors to maximize effectiveness.
How do motivation and ability influence the effectiveness of persuasive messages?
Motivation drives us to engage with the message thoughtfully, leading to stronger, long-lasting attitude change if the arguments are strong. However, when motivation is low, or if the message is too complex or if we’re distracted, spontaneous processing takes over, and even weak messages can be effective. The ability to process information is crucial: if a message is too complex, we may rely on peripheral cues (e.g., communicator’s expertise) instead of the message content (Hafer, Reynolds, & Obertynski, 1996; Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976).
How do personal relevance and message characteristics influence the processing route?
In Petty, Cacioppo, and Goldman’s (1981) study, personal relevance played a significant role in determining how the message was processed.
- When the issue was personally relevant (high relevance), students focused on the quality of the arguments, engaging in thoughtful processing.
- When the issue was irrelevant (low relevance), students relied on peripheral cues, such as the source’s expertise, processing the message spontaneously rather than deeply. This shows that the processing route is influenced by both the personal relevance of the issue and the strength of the message.
What is inoculation?
Building up defenses against persuasion by mildly attacking the attitude position
What is psychological reactance?
A reaction to people, rules, requirements, or offerings that are perceived to limit freedoms.
What is subliminal advertising?
Occurs when a message, such as an advertisement or another image of a brand, is presented to the consumer without the person being aware that a message has been presented
What strategies can be used to prevent attitude change?
To prevent attitude change, one approach is to strengthen the individual’s existing attitudes.
- Strong attitudes are harder to change and more likely to influence behavior.
- This can be achieved by encouraging individuals to consider all the reasons they should hold a specific attitude, integrating those reasons into their self-concept.
Techniques like forewarning and inoculation can also help.
- Forewarning involves giving individuals a chance to prepare for potential persuasive messages, which makes them more resistant to persuasion when the time comes.
- Inoculation involves presenting a weak version of a future persuasive message to help individuals develop counterarguments and defenses
How can psychological reactance affect attempts to prevent persuasion?
Psychological reactance occurs when individuals perceive their freedom to make their own decisions is being threatened, leading to a strong emotional response.
This can cause them to reject the persuasive message or even engage in the opposite behavior.
For example, if parents or authority figures become too directive in trying to prevent a behavior (like smoking), the individual may rebel, making the attempt less effective. Reactance can even occur in response to warning labels or graphic images, reducing their effectiveness in persuading individuals to change their behavior (Brehm, 1966; Erceg-Hurn & Steed, 2011).
Attitudes are:
a) relatively enduring evaluation of something.
b) a special type of personality traits.
c) generally positive or negative dispositions.
d) individual differences in outlooks on life
a)
Jo has a positive attitude toward getting up early to exercise. Even though this attitude is positive, based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, unless Jo also has the following, they are less likely to follow through on getting up early to exercise.
intentions.
concrete plan for action.
habits.
social support
intentions
Which question framing below is likely to elicit a measurement that is most likely to predict behaviour?
Do you like eating broccoli?.
Do you like eating broccoli for lunch on a regular basis?.
Do you like broccoli?.
Do you like eating broccoli for lunch?
Do you like eating broccoli for lunch on a regular basis?.
____________ message processing is associated with long lasting attitude change.
Thoughtful
There are ways to prevent persuasion. These include ___________: giving people a chance to develop a resistance to persuasion by reminding them that they might someday receive a persuasive message, and allowing them to practice how they will respond to influence attempts, and ____________: building up defenses against persuasion by mildly attacking the attitude position
There are ways to prevent persuasion. These include FOREWARNING: giving people a chance to develop a resistance to persuasion by reminding them that they might someday receive a persuasive message, and allowing them to practice how they will respond to influence attempts, and INOCULATION: building up defenses against persuasion by mildly attacking the attitude position
What is ostracism?
Being excluded and ignored by others.
How does ostracism affect brain activity?
Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) show that ostracism triggers heightened cortical activity in two specific brain areas: the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula. These areas are linked to the experience of physical pain, indicating that being excluded from a group can cause emotional pain similar to physical pain (Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003).
What is social comparison?
The process of contrasting one’s personal qualities and outcomes, including beliefs, attitudes, values, abilities, accomplishments, and experiences, to those of other people.
What are the functions of groups and why do people join them?
How are Leon Festinger and Stanley Schachters research related to this?
Groups satisfy the need to belong and provide members with information, assistance, and social support. According to Leon Festinger’s theory of social comparison, people join groups to evaluate the accuracy of their personal beliefs and attitudes.
Stanley Schachter (1959) found that people tend to affiliate and seek the company of others in ambiguous, stressful situations, preferring not to be alone.
Why do people sometimes prefer to affiliate with those who are worse off than themselves? What is this called?
People may prefer to affiliate with others who are worse off, as it helps maintain a sense of self-worth.
This process is known as downward social comparison, where individuals compare themselves to others who are less fortunate to feel better about their own situation.
What is social identity theory?
A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify with the group.
- assumes that we don’t just classify other people into such social categories as man, woman, Anglo, elderly, or college student, but we also categorize ourselves. Moreover, if we strongly identify with these categories, then we will ascribe the characteristics of the typical member of these groups to ourselves, and so stereotype ourselves. If, for example, we believe that college students are intellectual, then we will assume we, too, are intellectual if we identify with that group
What is collective self-esteem?
Feelings of self-worth that are based on evaluation of relationships with others and membership in social groups.
What does Mark Leary’s sociometer model suggest about self-esteem?
A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem functions to psychologically monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups.
Mark Leary’s sociometer model suggests that self-esteem acts as a gauge monitoring one’s relational value in the eyes of others. It is not only an indicator of personal worth but also a measure of how likely one is to be accepted into social groups.
A dip in self-esteem signals potential social exclusion, prompting individuals to adjust their behaviors to avoid being left out.
According to Moreland’s theory of social integration, why do groups form?
Groups form when individuals become dependent on one another for the satisfaction of their needs. The mutual dependence allows individuals to achieve goals and secure advantages that would be unattainable alone.
How does evolutionary psychology explain humans’ instinctual need for group membership?
From an evolutionary perspective, humans are biologically prepared to seek group membership because groups have increased human fitness over generations. Those with genes promoting group affiliation were more likely to survive and reproduce, making us descendants of “joiners” rather than “loners.”
What is social faciliation?
Improvement in task performance that occurs when people work in the presence of other people.
What is social facilitation and who first identified it?
Social facilitation is the enhancement of individual performance in the presence of others. Norman Triplett (1898) first identified this phenomenon when he observed that cyclists raced faster when competing against others. He later confirmed this with an experiment where children performed better in pairs than alone in a reel-turning task.
How does task complexity influence social facilitation?
Robert Zajonc (1965) found that social facilitation occurs when a task requires dominant responses—well-learned or instinctive behaviors. For example, people perform better on simple tasks like multiplication when others are present. However, for complex or novel tasks that require nondominant responses, the presence of others tends to hinder performance, as seen in tasks like writing essays.
What psychological processes influence social facilitation and interference?
Several psychological processes affect social facilitation:
- Evaluation apprehension occurs when individuals fear negative judgment from others, which can either motivate or impair performance depending on the task.
- Challenge-threat responses refer to physiological and neurological reactions triggered by the presence of others, which can improve performance on well-learned tasks but hinder it on more challenging tasks.
- Distractions from others can enhance performance on simple tasks (e.g., the Stroop test) but interfere with more complex tasks by dividing attention.
How do distractions from others affect performance on different tasks?
Distractions from the presence of others can enhance performance on simple tasks, like the Stroop test, by increasing alertness. However, for more cognitively demanding tasks, such as solving complex problems or writing essays, the presence of others tends to reduce performance due to divided attention and cognitive overload.
What is coordination loss and social loafing in group work?
Coordination loss occurs when group members fail to synchronize their efforts, reducing overall efficiency. For example, in a tug-of-war, people pull at different times, preventing maximum strength from being applied.
Social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort in a group setting compared to working alone. This can happen because people don’t feel personally responsible for the group’s outcome and may exert less cognitive or physical effort when collaborating on tasks (Latané, 1981).
What are the key ingredients for effective teamwork?
Two key factors for effective teamwork are a shared mental representation of the task and group unity. A shared mental model helps team members develop a common understanding of their goals and tasks.
Over time, as the team practices, individual differences in understanding diminish, and a consensus on the team’s goals and methods is formed (Tindale, Stawiski, & Jacobs, 2008).
How does group cohesion impact performance and teamwork?
Group cohesion, which refers to the unity and solidarity of a group, generally improves teamwork, as cohesive groups tend to have members who like each other and work well together toward collective goals.
However, the relationship between cohesion and performance is complex.
- Meta-analytic studies show that performance quality often influences cohesion more than cohesion influences performance.
- Additionally, cohesive groups can be unproductive if their norms emphasize low productivity (Mullen & Copper, 1994; Seashore, 1954).
What are the stages of group development according to Tuckman’s theory, and what occurs in each phase?
Bruce Tuckman’s theory of group development suggests that groups typically pass through five stages:
- Forming: Members become oriented toward one another and establish initial relationships.
- Storming: Conflict arises as members attempt to solve problems and establish group dynamics.
- Norming: Standards for behavior and roles develop, leading to more organized group interactions.
- Performing: The group functions as a cohesive unit focused on achieving its goals.
- Adjourning: The group disbands after achieving its objectives.
Throughout these stages, groups oscillate between task-oriented issues and relationship-building activities (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977).
What are the group development stages as established by Tuckan, Tuckman and Jensen?
Stage 1 – “Forming”. Members expose information about themselves in polite but tentative interactions. They explore the purposes of the group and gather information about each other’s interests, skills, and personal tendencies.
Stage 2 – “Storming”. Disagreements about procedures and purposes surface, so criticism and conflict increase. Much of the conflict stems from challenges between members who are seeking to increase their status and control in the group.
Stage 3 – “Norming”. Once the group agrees on its goals, procedures, and leadership, norms, roles, and social relationships develop that increase the group’s stability and cohesiveness.
Stage 4 – “Performing”. The group focuses its energies and attention on its goals, displaying higher rates of task-orientation, decision-making, and problem-solving.
Stage 5 – “Adjourning”. The group prepares to disband by completing its tasks, reduces levels of dependency among members, and dealing with any unresolved issues.
What is group polarization, and how does it affect decision-making in groups?
Group polarization refers to the tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme decisions in the same direction as the initial average judgments of the group members.
This occurs because group discussions amplify the pre-existing attitudes of members. For instance, if a group is generally inclined toward risk-taking, they will become even more risk-prone after discussing the issue. Studies show that groups can either become more prejudiced or more accepting depending on the group’s initial attitudes. For example, prejudiced individuals who discuss racial issues with like-minded people become even more negative, while those with less prejudice show greater acceptance of diversity (Myers & Lamm, 1976; Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969; Myers & Bishop, 1970).
What is the common knowledge effect?
The tendency for groups to spend more time discussing information that all members know (shared information) and less time examining information that only a few members know (unshared).
This common knowledge effect will result in a bad outcome if something known by only one or two group members is very important.
What is the common knowledge effect, and how does it impact group decision-making?
The common knowledge effect refers to the tendency of groups to focus on information that is known by most group members, while neglecting unique, unshared information that might be crucial for making the best decision. This can lead to poor outcomes, especially when the best option is supported by facts known only to one or two members.
Groups often spend more time discussing shared knowledge, which can result in suboptimal decisions.
A well-known example of this is the hidden profile task, where groups focus on information favoring a less optimal option, overlooking key facts that support the better choice (Stasser & Titus, 1987).
What is groupthink, and what are its causes and symptoms?
Groupthink is a mode of thinking that occurs in cohesive groups where the desire for unanimity overrides the motivation to realistically evaluate alternative options, leading to poor decision-making. Irving Janis (1982) identified several symptoms of groupthink:
- Overestimating the group’s wisdom and abilities
- Biased perceptions of outsiders
- Strong pressures for conformity
- Poor decision-making methods
Causes of groupthink include:
- Cohesion: High cohesion can increase conformity pressures, reducing dissent and critical discussion.
- Isolation: Groupthink groups tend to isolate themselves from external viewpoints, avoiding modification of their beliefs.
- Biased leadership: A leader who controls the agenda and decision-making can increase conformity.
- Decisional stress: Time pressure and stress can prompt quick, poorly considered decisions, followed by rationalization of those choices.
How can groups overcome the risks of groupthink, polarization, and the common knowledge effect?
To avoid groupthink, polarization, and the common knowledge effect, groups should:
- Emphasize open inquiry: Ensure all sides of an issue are discussed and encourage questioning.
- Admit the possibility of failure: Acknowledge that the group’s decisions may not always succeed.
- Use strategies like appointing devil’s advocates to challenge assumptions.
- Break the group into smaller discussion groups to encourage more perspectives.
Leaders should promote full discussion of pros and cons and ensure that all voices are heard. By taking these precautions, groups can make more informed and rational decisions.
Additionally, group cohesion is important for emotional and psychological well-being. Groups provide support, foster self-worth, and help combat loneliness. These emotional benefits are as valuable as the practical benefits of teamwork.
When golfing, Jill plays better when her teammates are watching than when she is by herself. This is an example of:
Practice Effect.
Social Inhibition.
Bystander Effect.
Social Facilitation.
Mere Exposure Effect
Social facilitation
The manager at the movie theater notices that a crew of 4 cleans a theater as quickly as a crew of 6. This is possibly due to ______.
social loafing
MRI brain scans of people who were excluded from groups showed:
Responses similar to depression.
Responses similar to physical pain.
An overactive amygdala showing anger.
Larger ventricles in the brain.
Increased activity in the dopamine pathways
Responses similar to physical pain.
An executive board makes a risky decision based on the CEO’s recommendation. ______ occurred because members did not speak out about their concerns.
Groupthink
Most of those attending pro-environment rally came away from the rally with an even stronger view on restricting garbage amounts due to the concept: __________
group polarization
People are often biased against others outside of their own social group, showing prejudice (_____ bias), stereotypes (_______ bias), and discrimination (_______bias)
People are often biased against others outside of their own social group, showing prejudice (emotional bias), stereotypes (cognitive bias), and discrimination (behavioral bias
Prejudice vs stereotype vs discrimination
Prejudice: Prejudice is an evaluation or emotion toward people merely based on their group membership.
Stereotypes: Our general beliefs about the traits or behaviors shared by group of people.
Discrimination: Discrimination is behavior that advantages or disadvantages people merely based on their group membership.
What are blatant viases?
Blatant biases are conscious beliefs, feelings, and behavior that people are perfectly willing to admit, are mostly hostile, and openly favor their own group.
For example, organizations that preach contempt for other races (and praise for their own) is an example of a blatant bias. And scarily, these blatant biases tend to run in packs: People who openly hate one outgroup also hate many others.
What is social dominance orientation (SDO)?
A belief that group hierarchies are inevitable in all societies and are even a good idea to maintain order and stability
What is Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and how does it influence individuals’ views on group hierarchies?
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) is the belief that group hierarchies are inevitable and beneficial for societal order and stability. Individuals with high SDO believe that some groups are inherently superior to others and that inequality between groups is natural and acceptable. High-SDO individuals prefer social arrangements where certain groups (often their own) are at the top of the hierarchy, while others are at the bottom.
People high in SDO tend to have lower levels of tolerance, empathy, altruism, and community orientation. They also have a strong belief in work ethic, where hard work pays off, and may favor occupations that maintain existing hierarchies (e.g., police, business). High SDO individuals are more likely to endorse the superiority of certain groups, such as men, native-born residents, and heterosexuals, while viewing marginalized groups (e.g., women, minorities, non-heterosexuals) as inferior.
The SDO gender difference is notable, with men typically scoring higher than women, and individuals high in SDO often see the world as a competitive, resource-limited environment where groups battle for dominance.
Social dominance orientation vs Right-wing authoritarianism
Core belief:
Intergroup belief:
Ingroup belief:
Outgroup belief:
Core belief:
SDO - groups compete for economic resources
RWA - groups compete over values
Intergroup belief:
SDO - Group hierarchies are inevitable, good
RWA - groups must follow authority
Ingroup belief:
SDO - ingroup must be tough, competitve
RWA - ingroup must unite, protect
Outgroup belief:
- SDO - “they” are trying to beat “us”
- RWA - “they” have bad values
What is right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)?
Endorses respect for obedience and authority in the service of group conformity
What is Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and how does it differ from Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)?
Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) focuses on value conflicts and emphasizes respect for authority, obedience, and group conformity. People high in RWA value maintaining group unity and preserving collective values, especially when those values are threatened by differing beliefs or behaviors. For instance, an individual high in RWA might dislike an outgroup member moving into their neighborhood because this person brings in values or beliefs that conflict with those of the in-group.
In contrast, Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) focuses on economic and resource-based conflicts. High-SDO individuals see the world as a competitive battle for limited resources and prefer group hierarchies where some groups (typically their own) dominate over others.
RWA does not necessarily align with political conservatism, though it is often associated with it due to its preference for order and conventional values. Extreme RWA scores are linked to biases against outgroups and demands for in-group loyalty and conformity. When combined with high SDO, it can predict membership in hate groups that endorse aggression against marginalized groups (e.g., minorities, immigrants, LGBTQ+ individuals).
What are subtle biases?
Subtle biases are automatic, ambiguous, and ambivalent, but real in their consequences.
What is own-group preference, and how does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measure it?
Own-group preference refers to the tendency for people to favor their own group (e.g., by hometown, school, religion, gender, or ethnicity), which is rooted in a natural inclination to like oneself and one’s group. However, this often leads to disliking outgroups, and this preference is automatic, unintended, and can be difficult to control.
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a psychological tool used to measure this implicit bias. It assesses how quickly individuals can categorize people, words, or images into certain categories, such as linking “good” with their own group and “bad” with outgroups. Even if people consciously claim they don’t discriminate, the IAT reveals unconscious biases through slower reaction times when associating outgroup members with positive attributes.
These implicit biases can influence real-world behavior, including nonverbal actions and decision-making. For example, a job interviewer with implicit bias might unknowingly act distant toward an outgroup member, negatively impacting the interviewee’s performance. This phenomenon occurs despite the individual’s explicit beliefs in equality, often leading to unintended discrimination.
What is the social identity theory?
A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify with the group.
What is social identity theory, and how does it explain in-group favoritism and outgroup disliking?
Social identity theory (Tajfel et al., 1971) explains the tendency of individuals to favor their own in-group over an outgroup, a bias often leading to outgroup disliking.
- This bias arises from in-group favoritism—the natural human tendency to prefer one’s own group.
- For example, if two classes of children want to play on the same soccer field, the conflict arises not because of real differences between the groups, but because each class favors its own and excludes the other. To justify this favoritism, people exaggerate the differences between the in-group and outgroup, often perceiving the outgroup as more homogenous and distinct from themselves.
Aversive racism is a specific type of bias where individuals, especially those with good intentions, feel discomfort when interacting with members of an outgroup (e.g., racial minorities) and may act in subtly discriminatory ways without recognizing it. A person might avoid interactions or behave awkwardly with an outgroup member, even if they do not explicitly hold prejudiced beliefs. These ambiguities in behavior are difficult to interpret but often correlate with discriminatory actions, reflecting the tension between good intentions and unconscious bias (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2010).
What does the Stereotype Content Model explain about mixed stereotypes of outgroups?
The Stereotype Content Model (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007) suggests that stereotypes of outgroups are often mixed, combining both positive and negative elements.
- For example, ethnic Asians in the United States are sometimes seen as the “model minority,” perceived as successful in education, income, and social stability, which is a positive stereotype.
However, such perceptions can still lead to unwanted consequences or biases, as the group is sometimes seen as “different” or distanced from the mainstream.
Similarly, benevolent sexism can exist where people may feel respect toward traditional women but are hostile toward nontraditional women. Ageist stereotypes may involve respect for older adults while simultaneously expressing concerns about their societal burden. These mixed stereotypes reflect complex, often contradictory feelings that can affect behavior toward the group.
How do warmth and competence influence how we view other groups?
When people learn about a new group, they first assess whether the group has good or bad intentions.
- If the group is seen as warm and cooperative, they are viewed positively and are considered part of “our side.”
- On the other hand, if the group is seen as cold and competitive, they are often viewed as a threat.
Once a group’s intentions are understood, people also evaluate whether the group is competent enough to act on those intentions.
- If a group is perceived as incompetent, their intentions matter less. These two dimensions—warmth and competence—shape how groups relate to each other and influence the social judgments people make.
What are the four types of stereotypes and their associated emotional prejudices?
The four types of stereotypes and their associated emotional prejudices are:
High warmth, high competence (e.g., admired groups like ingroups) → Pride
High warmth, low competence (e.g., elderly or disabled groups) → Pity
Low warmth, high competence (e.g., professional elites or successful outgroups) → Envy
Low warmth, low competence (e.g., groups perceived as lazy or threatening) → Disgust
These stereotypes and emotions occur worldwide and can lead to specific forms of discrimination toward particular groups. The emotional responses—pride, pity, envy, and disgust—predict how groups are treated, demonstrating that bias is not an equal opportunity phenomenon.
______is a term for an emotional bias that involves an evaluation of people based merely on their membership in a given group.
Prejudice
Bertram is a taxi driver in New York. He feels that businessmen are the biggest tippers. As a result, he does not stop to pick up casually dressed people. Bertram’s behaviors demonstrate ______.
socioeconomic leveling.
class stratification.
hierarchy of needs.
social dominance.
survival of the fittest
social dominance
A person who ranks high in ______would emphasize the importance of obedience to authority in the service of group conformity.
homeostasis maintenance.
equilateral balance.
cultural disequity.
right-wing authoritarianism.
left-wing liberalism
right-wing authoritarianism.
______biases are those that are unintended, immediate, and irresistible.
Subtle.
Automatic.
Implicit.
Blatant.
Explicit
Automatic.
Persuasion is ________ change
attitude change
Atttitudes that are strong dsiplay important characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Atttitudes that are strong dsiplay important characteristics:
- resistant to persuasion (hard to change)
- persistent over time (tend to not change over time)
- tend to guide information processing
- tend to be better predictors of behaviour
2 important variables to consider when thinking about persuasion:
- ability
- if someone isnt able to process the message, even if its good info, unlikely to lead to persuasion (Arent able to process it) - motivation
- not motivated to process something even if youre able to (“dont want”)
In order to be able to process a message thoroughly to arrive at the lasting attitude change (as best as possible), we need the recipient high in BOTH ability and motivation. But doesnt always happen
Spontaneous attitude change:
- when the recipient is low in motivation and/or ability, can still have an attitude change
- but changes are not very strong or lasting, and often associated with emotions (eg super bowl commercials that make you laugh or cry)
Thoughtful attitude change:
- when the recipient is high in motivation/ability
- processes the message deeply and there is meaningful and lasting attitude change
What is this an example of:
Most people in a group rate apples as 6/10. After discussion, people leave thinking apples are an 8/10.
Group polarization, they became more extreeme in their evaluation
What is this an example of: As groups members strive for a cohesive outcome, they may not realistically consider alternative courses of action.
Groupthink
