review Flashcards
define empiricism vs functionalism vs behaviourism vs realism vs structuralism
empiricism: the belief that all knowledge comes from experience
behaviourism: the study of behaviour
realism: a point of view that emphasizes the importance of the sense in providing knowledge of the external world
functionalism: a school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness (about the activities of the mind)
structuralism: a school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience (about the contents of the mind)
Describe the scientist-practitioner model vs scholar-practitioner
SCIENTIST-practitioner: a model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills
SCHOLAR-practitioner: training model of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice
Inductive vs deductive reasoning
Inductive:
- drawing GENERAL conclusions from specific observations
- based on probabilities
- science is better at addressing probabilities than proving something, so even data that isn’t falsifiable can be useful
Deductive:
- general principles are applied to prove specific instances
- more associated with proof
What is accuracy, consistency, scope, simplicity and fruitfulness?
Accuracy: explanations and theories match real world observations
Consistency: a theory has few exceptions and shows agreement with other theories within and across disciplines
Scope: extent to which a theory extends beyond currently available data, explaining a wide array of phenomena
Simplicity: when multiple explanations are equally good at explaining the data, the simplest should be selected
Fruitfulness: The usefulness of the theory in guiding new research by predicting new, testable relationships.
Anecdotal evidence is limited by:
Quality and representativeness of observations and memory shortcomings
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) tests, type 1 and 2 error:
Test probability that the observations would be the same if there was No relationship between the variables in the study
Type I error: data shows a relationship that doesn’t exist
Type II error: data fails to show a relationship that exists
What is the p-value?
Probability values (P-value): set a threshold for errors and what data is significant
“the probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture about the larger population or process”
How often a random process would give the result found in a study, assuming no external variables
Type I and II error
Type I error: rejecting a null hypothesis that is actually true
- in reality there is NO relationship
Type II error: failing to reject a null hypothesis that is actually false in the population
- in reality there is a relationship
What makes a scientific theory?
An explanation for an observed phenomena that is
- empirically well-supported
- consistent
- fruitful/predictive
- potentially falsified
eugenics
the promotion of selective breeding (for desired traits)
Describe behaviourism, and why cognitive psych was better suited
Behaviourism (Watson & Skinner): rejected any reference to mind, viewed overt and observable behaviour is the subject matter of psychology
o But behaviourism was unable to fully explain human behaviour because it neglected mental processes
o So, cognitive psychology was better suited - includes flashbulb memory and the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Anecdotal evidence:
a piece of evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct
What is systematic observation?
the careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it.
Observations provide the basic data that allow scientists to track, tally, or otherwise organize information about the world
Being objective
Being free of personal bias
What are the factors of ethics
- Informed consent
- Confidentiality
- Privacy
- Benefits (researchers should weigh the benefits against the potential risks)
- Deception (researchers much debrief after the study to educate participants)
What do levels of analysis state?
Levels of analysis state that a given phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously - allow a variety of perspectives
What is the margin of error?
The expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for a 95% confidence interval
What is random assignment vs random sampling, and what is the goal of each?
Random assignment: using a probability-based method to divide a sample into a treatment group
- balances out all variables related to the individual differences between participants (and between treatment groups)
Random sampling: using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population
- goal is selecting a sample that is representative of the population (generalizable)
- eliminates sampling bias
Random assignment + random sampling can help you have more confidence in your results as they REDUCE EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES as much as possible
When is a result statistically significant?
When is it unlikely to arise by chance alone
Dependent and independent variable, operational definitions
Dependent: The variable the researcher measures but does NOT manipulate
Independent: the variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiement
Operational definitions: how researchers specifically measure a concept
Quasi-experimental design
An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions
Experimental designs vs correlational
Experimental:
- Have IV and DV
- IV is manipulated to have an outcome on DV
- Double-blind procedures prevent confounds
- Relationship between variables: cause-and-effect
Correlational:
- Measures association between two variables
- does NOT imply causation
- no intervention or manipulation, patterns are instead identified
- can ONLY examine 2 variables
- Relationship between variables: correlation
Experimental designs vs longitudinal vs quasi-experimental pros and cons
Experimental:
(+) determines cause-and-effect relationships
(-) more manipulation therefore reduced ecological validity
Longitudinal design:
(+) provides valuable evidence for testing theories
(-) time consuming and costly
(-) attrition; when participants leave
(-) correlation isn’t causation
Quasi-experimental design:
(+) high external validity, as they often involve real-world interactions
(-) random sampling not used
Limitations of experimental research
- manipulated and controlled variables not natural, experimenters must try balancing external and internal validity
- since internal validity is crucial for research, it is prioritized, however, external validity is required to apply it to the population
Studying daily experiences
Experience-sampling method:
- premise: collect in-the-moment self-report data directly from ppl in natural settings
- asks participants several times a day to report their feelings and thoughts
- increasingly popular, now the standard for studying daily experiences
- EXTERNALLY VALID RESULTS
Day reconstructed method (DRM):
- participants describe their experience and behaviours of a day, retrospectively, the following day
Studying daily behaviour
Electronically activated recorder (EAR):
- gives info on participants location, activities, interactions, emotional expressions
- naturalistic observation methodological tool
Other methods:
- observing ppls rooms and offices to understand how personality is expressed and detected in daily environments
As ppl may not accurately report daily activities, emotions, etc, in a lab setting, assessment of real-world behaviour is crucial
Studying daily physiology
- Researcher interested in how our bodies fluctuate to daily demands in life (ex physiological reactions to love, ostracization, etc)
Ambulatory physiological monitoring:
- monitoring physiological rxns as ppl go about their daily lives
Electrocardiogram (ECG):
- monitors BP, electrodermal activity, body temp
Methods are used to study how little experiences in our lives leave objective, measurable traces in our body
Studying online behaviour
- recent study tool
- emails, chats, tweets, blog posts, all leave direct verbal traces of behaviour
- most research looks at online behaviour (personality traits, quality of social life)
Smartphone psychology:
- “whats next” for research, since phones are integral to life
- phones store vast amounts of real-world user interaction data, tracking for locations, physiological monitoring - all valuable for research!
Intersexual selection vs intrasexual competition
Intersexual selection – a process of sexual selection by which evolution (change) occurs because of the mate preference of one sex exerting selection pressure on members of the opposite sex
Intrasexual competition – a process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete, and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex
Histone mods:
Posttranslational modifications of the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation. These modifications include:
acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, sumoylation, etc
How are nature and nurture hard to differentiate in typical human families? How can this be overcome?
In typical human families, nature and nurture are difficult to differentiate because many children are raised by and born from their parents
But this can be overcome through adoption studies (comparing adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents)
- if children similar to adopted parents, then environmental correlation
- if children similar to genetic parents, then genetic correlation
What is the heritability coefficient, and some problems with it?
measures how strongly differences among individuals are related to differences among their genes
problems:
1. doesn’t agree with intuition (e.g. both fraternal and identical twins have 2 arms, so theoretically it would be 100% nurture)
2. divides traits’ determinants into two distinct portions - doesn’t consider the phenomenon of gene-environment interaction (G x E)
Understand why nature–nurture questions are difficult to study empirically
To study empirically means: gathering measurable evidence to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on real-world phenomena.
Its hard to study nature-nurture empirically because:
- Complex Interactions: Genes and environments often interact. For example, a person’s genetic predisposition might influence how they respond to their environment, or their environment might alter gene expression (epigenetics).
- Ethical Constraints: Experimental studies on humans, such as controlling or manipulating environments in extreme ways, are often unethical.
- Measurement Challenges: Both genetic predispositions and environmental influences can be difficult to measure precisely, leading to uncertainty in findings.
Therefore:
Researchers often rely on twin studies, adoption studies, or molecular genetics, but even these approaches have limitations in fully separating nature from nurture.
T or F: Physical survival is only important if it contributes to successful reproduction
True
T or F: The engine of evolution through natural selection is reproductive not survival success
True
What is natural selection:
differential REPRODUCTIVE success due to differences in heritable attributes
o We have inherited adaptive, psychological processes designed to ensure success in the form of certain genes that endure overtime
What are adaptations and the types of adaptations?
traits that have evolved over time to increase reproductive success
Survival adaptations: helped our ancestors handle “hostile forces of nature”
§ E.g., sweat glands help us survive hot temperatures, shivering mechanism helps us survive cold temperatures, developing cravings for fats/sugars helps keep us going in food shortages, fear helps us stay safe
Reproductive adaptations: help us compete for mates
- explained through the sexual selection theory (Darwin)
What is the sexual selection theory?
describes the evolution of characteristics due to mating advantage
Intrasexual competition:
- members of one sex compete
- victor gains preferential mating access to member of opposite sex
- qualities leading to success in intrasexual competition are passed on specifically because they are associated with greater mating success, but sometimes it lowers survival success (e.g. larger antlers could make it harder to evade predators)
Intersexual selection:
- members of one sex are attracted to certain qualities in mates, so desired qualities get passed on in greater numbers because those who have the traits mate more often
Gene selection theory? How can genes boost their own replicative success?
Genes that are better able to encourage organism to reproduce (thus appearing in organism’s offspring) have advantage over competing genes that can’t
Boosting replicative success:
1. By increasing the organism’s odds of survival and reproduction (individual fitness).
Example: Female sloths scream loudly during mating; genes for louder screams increase survival and reproductive chances.
- By helping genetic relatives survive and reproduce (inclusive fitness).
Example: Parents supporting their kids through college, increasing their kids’ reproductive success, and ensuring the parents’ genes are passed on.
Evolutionary psychology, describe psychological vs physiological adaptations, and give examples of each:
Psychological: mechanisms of the mind that evolved to solve specific problems of survival/reproduction
Ex, sexual jealousy
- input: romantic partner flirting w/ rival
- procedure: person evaluates threat rival poses to relationship
- output: behavioural; may range from vigilance to violence
Include traits that improve one’s ability to live in groups/interact
Physiological: occur in body because of one’s environment
Ex, calluses (tougher skin to protect repeatedly scraped areas)
- Input: increased friction to skin
- Procedure: skin gros new skin cells in affected area
- Output: formation of the callus to protect underlying tissue
What is interactionist framework:
Theory that considers multiple factors when determining outcome
How does culture have a major effect on psychological adaptations?
E.g., status within a group is important in all cultures to achieve reproductive success (higher status makes someone more attractive to mates)
§ In each culture, the definition of status differs
Evolutionary psychology:
a) predicts rigid “instincts”
b) studies flexible, environmentally connected adaptations
DOES NOT predict rigid “instincts”; not one rule that constantly works
b) is true:
studies flexible, environmentally connected adaptations (vary by situation)
Describe the aspects of the error management theory:
Cost assymetries:
o Over evolutionary history, we developed adaptive bias in favor of least costly choice
o We psychologically adapt to prefer choices that MINIMIZE cost/error
Visual descent illusion (Jackson & Cormack, 2008)
o People will overestimate distance when looking down from a height compared to looking up in order to be wary of falling from great heights (high cost)
Auditory looming bias
o People tend to overestimate how close objects are when sound is moving towards them to when it’s moving away
o Better to be safe than sorry - more alert when a threat is approaching
Sexual over-perception bias (Perilloux, Easton & Buss, 2012)
o Men often misread sexual interest from a woman because of the cost it has on men when they miss out on a chance for reproduction
Are genetically identical twins epigenetically the same?
(Genetically) identical twins sharing common genotype are epigenetically similar when younger but become more dissimilar (different behaviour/personality, physical traits/risk)
What is the glucocorticoid?
Glucocorticoid: brain structure associated with stress response, learning and memory
What is the significance of histone acetylation and DNA methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter
Epigenetic Changes:
- Poor parental care can alter DNA methylation and histone acetylation at the glucocorticoid receptor gene, causing long-term changes in physiology and behavior.
- Abused children show more methylation at this gene, linking childhood trauma to lasting effects.
Describe the maternally transmitted response to stress in rats
In adulthood, offspring of mothers who exhibited increased levels of pup licking and grooming INCREASED expression of glucocorticoid receptor and lower hormonal response to stress compared to those exposed to low licking (Francis et al, 1999) (Liu et al, 1997)
Rat pups receiving lower levels of maternal licking/grooming during first week of life showed decreased histone acetylation and increased DNA methylation of neuron-specific promoter of glucocorticoid receptor gene (Weaver et al, 2004), (Weaver, Meaney & Szyf,
Gene expression is reduced number of glucocorticoid receptors in brain is decreased = higher hormonal response to stress throughout life
Child nutrition and the epigenome
Nutrients in food can change DNA methylation and histone mods, which modifies gene expression in physiologic and pathologic processes (embryo developing, aging, carcinogenesis)
- nutrients can inhibit enzymes that catalyze DNA methylation/histone mods or altering abundance of substrates in the reactions
- rat mothers fed diet low in methyl group donors during pregnancy produced offspring with reduced DNMTA-1 expression, decreased DNA methylation, increased histone acetylation at promote regions of specific genes (such as glucocorticoid receptor) and increased gene expression in livers
Seen as a tool to prevent pediatric developmental disease and cancer and delay aging processes
Examining children of women who were pregnant during famines.
- women who endured famine in late stages of pregnancy gave birth to SMALLER babies who had risk of insulin resistance later in life
- famine exposure was associated with wide range of risks like obesity, higher rate of coronary heart disease and lower birth weight
- offspring who were starved prenatally later experienced impaired glucose tolerance in adulthood, even with more food abundant
- 60 years after famine, people exposed to famine prenatally showed reduced DNA methylation compared to unexposed same-sex siblings
Epigenetics in learning and memory; methylation:
- influence long term changes in synaptic signalling, organization in the brain and morphology
- neuronal activity in mice hippocampi is associated with changes in DNA methylation
- disruption to genes encoding DNA methylation machinery causing learning and memory impairments
- DNA methylation has been implicated in neuronal activity (learning and memory impairments) and maintenance of long-term memory. important also in mediating synaptic plasticity and cognitive function
Epigenetics in learning and memory; histone acetylation
- histone mods alter chromatin accessibility and gene expression
- memory formation and enhanced synaptic transmission is linked to INCREASED histone acetylation and alterations in histone methylation which promote gene expression
- neuronal increase in histone deacetylase activity results in REDUCED synaptic plasticity and impairs memory
- pharmacological inhibition of histone deacetylases augments memory formation. this suggests histone deacetylation regulates memory formation
briefly what are MECP2 and CBP
highly expressed in neurons involved in regulating neutral gene expression
MECP2
- is responsible for reading DNA sequence, checking for DNA methylation and binding to areas with methylation, preventing binding of bad proteins
- influences gene expression that supports dendritic and synaptic development and hippocampus-dependent memory
What causes Rett Syndrome, and how does it affect neural function?
Caused by a mutation in the MECP2 gene, which regulates DNA methylation and prevents harmful protein binding.
MECP2 supports dendritic/synaptic development and memory (Li et al., 2011; Skene et al., 2010).
Mutations lead to:
- Increased histone acetylation, neuron death, anxiety, cognitive deficits, and social withdrawal (Shahbazian et al., 2002).
- Disrupts the epigenetic regulation of histone modification and gene expression.
What is Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome (RTS), and how is it linked to CBP mutations?
RTS is caused by mutations in the CBP gene, which promotes histone acetylation and gene expression.
Symptoms include decreased histone acetylation, cognitive dysfunction, and impaired neural plasticity (Korzus et al., 2004).
Mouse studies show CBP mutations reduce histone acetylation, impair cognitive tasks, and disrupt neurogenesis (Josselyn, 2005).
How do DNA methylation and histone modifications regulate learning and memory?
DNA Methylation:
- Produces long-term changes in synaptic signaling and brain organization (Day & Sweatt, 2011).
- Implicated in neuronal activity and long-term memory maintenance (Miller et al., 2010).
Histone Modifications:
- Increased histone acetylation enhances memory and synaptic plasticity (Guan et al., 2002).
- Histone deacetylase inhibition improves memory formation (Levenson et al., 2004).
How do epigenetic modifications link environment and neurodevelopment?
Environmental cues regulate histone-modifying enzymes, promoting neurogenesis and affecting behavioral development (Wang et al., 2010).
Misregulated epigenetic mechanisms result in cognitive and neural defects.
How are epigenetic changes linked to psychological disorders?
DNA methylation changes in genes involved in brain development and neurotransmitter pathways are associated with mental illnesses (Mill et al., 2008).
Disorders often begin in childhood, causing lifelong disability.
Environmental effects and cellular epigenetic changes may help identify causes of psychiatric disorders.
How does epigenetics relate to depression and antidepressant actions?
Depression-related behaviours involve chromatin structure changes that regulate gene expression.
Key Findings:
- Social avoidance and stress decrease expression of hippocampal and emotional-processing genes (Tsankova et al., 2006; Lutter et al., 2008).
- Histone markers for increased gene expression are reduced in the brains of depressed individuals (Covington et al., 2009).
- Antidepressants reverse gene repression and increase histone markers, supporting the use of HDAC inhibitors (Tsankova et al., 2006; Wilkinson et al., 2009).
What role do HDAC inhibitors play in treating depression?
HDAC inhibitors exert antidepressant effects by modifying distinct cellular targets (Cassel et al., 2006).
They reverse gene repression caused by stress and enhance markers of gene expression.
Which of the following best describes evolution?
1. Heritable traits developing over time because they help our survival
2. Differential reproductive success due to differences in heritable attributes
3. Traits that have evolved over time to increase reproductive success
4. The theory that describes the transition of species over time in essentially a one-fits-all rule
- Evolution, as described by natural selection, is the process by which individuals with advantageous heritable traits are more likely to reproduce successfully, passing those traits to the next generation.
This leads to changes in the frequency of those traits in a population over time.
Why not option 3?
Option 2 highlights the mechanism of evolution—differential reproductive success due to heritable traits. It explains how evolution works, emphasizing the role of variation, inheritance, and selection.
Option 3 focuses on the outcome of evolution (traits increasing reproductive success) but doesn’t explain how or why those traits become prevalent in a population.
Which of the following is not a form of either sexual- or gene-selection theory?
1. Intrasexual competition
2. Intersexual competition
3. Genes that allow reproduction are better selected
4. Sexual overperception bias
- sexual overpeception bias
Sexual overperception bias (Option 4) is not a form of sexual or gene selection theory.
It is part of error management theory:
- It refers to a cognitive bias where individuals (typically men) overestimate the sexual interest of others (typically women) in social interactions.
- This bias does not directly relate to the mechanisms of sexual or gene selection.
Habituation vs sensitization
Habituation: occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure
Sensitization: occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure
Describe incidental, intentional, perceptual vs non-associative learning.
Incidental learning: any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn
Intentional learning: any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention
Perceptual learning: occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience
Non-associative learning: occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour
What is operant conditioning vs classical
Classical conditioning – describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning
Classical conditioning – procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
- Result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response
Operant conditioning – describes stimulus-response associative learning
Instrumental (operant) conditioning – process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviours and their consequences
Conditioned compensatory response:
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response.
Functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response
Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli
What is a discriminative stimulus?
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. “Sets the occasion” for the operant response
What is extinction?
decrease in the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus
Fear conditioning, how?
Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus is associated wit an aversive unconditioned stimulus, and because of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear
Habit
instrumental behaviour that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer
Law of effect
the idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects
Operant
a behaviour that is controlled by its consequences
Prediction error
when the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli
Quantitative law of effect
mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours
Reinforcer devaluation effect
the finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable
Stimulus control
when an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it
Vicarious reinforcement
learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of
another person
US and UR
Unconditioned response (UR) – in classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – in classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs
Appraisal structure and appraisal theories:
Appraisal structure – the set of appraisals that bring about an emotion
Appraisal theories:
- evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs.
- Contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals
Coping potential
people’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges
Forms of learning
Auditory perceptual learning: learning that occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience
- Ex, people hear songs differently due to personal experiences
Implicit learning: learning that occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express and without awareness that it was learnt
- Ex, language acquisition
- Implicit memory is long term memo that doesn’t require conscious thought to encode
Nonassociative learning: learning that occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour
- Ex, touching a hot pan, fire alarm noises
- Habituation is when responses lessen with exposure
- Sensitization is when responses increase with exposure
Individual differences affecting learning
- Motivation
- Organization and planning skills
- Working memo capacity (memory used to hold onto info temporarily, higher means better reasoning skills + reading comprehension)
- Anxiety (eg math anxiety: smaller capacity for remembering math-related info)
- Expertise (having more expertise enhances our ability to learn new info. chunking)
The three principles of learning:
- The value of metacognition
- not useful if someone can’t discern between material they mastered and material they need to learn - Transfer-appropriate processing
- when the situation is same as the original encoding activity, one can more easily retrieve info - The value of forgetting
- we don’t need to retrieve all the info we encode
- forgetting info can clear the way for crucial info
Observational learning, and its parts
Learning by observation of others
Part of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing others
4 Parts:
1. Attention - one must pay attention to what they’re observing to learn
2. Retention - one must retain the observed behaviour in memory
3. Initiation - one must execute the learned behaviour
4. Motivation - must be motivated to engage in observational learning
Knowledge emotions are:
family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring
They motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, builds knowledge and learning
The 4 Knowledge emotions are:
1. Suprise
2. Interest
3. Confusion
4. Awe
List the appraisals of each of the knowledge emotions
Surprise:
- “expectedness check”/novelty
High unexpectedness –> high contrast event —> Surprise
Interest:
- things are unexpected/unfamiliar, coping potential
Mental Challenge (novelty) + High Coping Potential –> Interest
Confusion:
- high novelty, event is hard to comprehend
Novelty + Event hard to comprehend –> Confusion
Awe:
- vast (inconsistent with one’s existing knowledge), accommodation to it
Vast event + Changing beliefs to Accommodate it –> Awe
What are the components and process of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment?
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food → naturally triggers Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Bell → no response initially
Conditioning: Repeated pairing of bell (NS) with food (US)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell → now triggers Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation
Acquisition: Learning the association between NS and US
Extinction: CR fades if CS (bell) is presented without US (food)
Spontaneous Recovery: CR reappears after a rest period
agonists vs antagonists
Agonists – a drug that increases or enhances a neurotransmitter’s effect
Antagonist – a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effect
Enzymatic induction
process through which a drug can enhance the production of an enzyme
Unipolar, bipolar vs multipolar neurons
Unipolar:
- 1 axon
- NO dendrites
- ideal for relaying info
- transmits physiological info from periphery up the spinal cord to the brain
Bipolar:
- 1 axon
- 1 dendrite
- help pass info to specific centers in the brain
- for sensory perception
Multipolar:
- 1 axon
- many dendrites
- Most common
- communicates motor and sensory info to other neurons
Two forces that act to maintain a steady state when the cell is at rest:
Diffusion, electrostatic pressure (like repels like)
Define the force on anions, potassium, chloride, and sodium:
1) at rest
2) for diffusion
3) for electrostatic pressure
Anions
1) No permeability
2) N/A (no ion channels allow for A- movement)
3) N/A
Potassium
1) Very permeable
2) Pushes K+ outside the cell (higher concentration of K+ inside)
3) Pushes K+ inside the cell (since inside is negative)
Chloride
1) Very permeable
2) Pushes Cl- inside cell (higher conc outside)
3) Pushes Cl- outside cell (since outside is positive)
Sodium
1) Minimally permeable
2) Pushes Na+ inside cell (higher conc outside)
3) Pushes Na+ inside cell (*but Na stays outside)
*Na+ is removed from inside the cell by a sodium-potassium pump (uses ATP to move 3 Na+ ions out of the cell, and 2 K+ ions into the cell)
Neurotransmitter binds to ionotropic receptors in ____________ on postsynaptic dendritic spine
Neurotransmitter binds to ionotropic receptors in lock-and-key fashion on postsynaptic dendritic spine
What are the different types of hormones
Steroids:
- Cortisol
- Estradiol
- Testosterone
Peptides and protein hormones:
- Oxytocin
- Prolactin
- Thyroxine
- Vasopressin
Name each of the major glands, what hormones they produce and what their function is:
Pituitary gland
- Hormones: GH, releasing and inhibiting hormones (eg LSH)
- Function: regulate growth, regulate hormone release
Thyroid
- Hormones: thyroxine, triiodothyronine
- Function: regulate metabolism and appetite
Pineal
- Hormones: melatonin
- Function: regulate some biological rhythms such as sleep cycles
Adrenal
- Hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Function: stress response, increase metabolic activities
Pancreas
- Hormones: insulin, glucagon
- Function: regulate blood sugar levels
Ovaries/testes
- Hormones: estrogen, progesterone, androgens (eg testosterone)
- Functions: mediate sexual motivation and behaviour, reproduction
How do majority of psychoactive drugs work in the brain?
Virtually all psychoactive drugs interfere with/alter how neurons communicate with each other
Agonists increase activity at the synapse, antagonists decrease activity at the synapse
What are the behaviours or disease related to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
Learning and memory; Alzheimer’s disease muscle movement in the peripheral nervous system
What are the behaviours or disease related to the neurotransmitter dopamine
Reward circuits; motor circuits involved in Parkinson’s disease; schizophrenia
