Week 1 Readings Flashcards
What is systematic observation
systematic in that we try to observe under controlled conditions, and also systematically vary the conditions of our observations so that we can see variations in the phenomena and understand when they occur and do not occur
Systematic observation is the core of science. Scientists observe the world, in a very organized way. We often measure the phenomenon we are observing. We record our observations so that memory biases are less likely to enter in to our conclusions. We are systematic in that we try to observe under controlled conditions, and also systematically vary the conditions of our observations so that we can see variations in the phenomena and understand when they occur and do not occur.
What are some methods to “measure” happiness in psych, making it a science?
- “peer report measures” in which they ask close friends and family members about the happiness of a target individual. Researchers can then compare these ratings to the self-report ratings and check for discrepancies.
- memory measures, with the idea that dispositionally positive people have an easier time recalling pleasant events and negative people have an easier time recalling unpleasant events.
- Modern psychologists even use biological measures such as saliva cortisol samples (cortisol is a stress related hormone) or fMRI images of brain activation (the left pre-frontal cortex is one area of brain activity associated with good moods).
Define Empirical methods
Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation.
What is induction?
drawing general conclusions from specific observations
For example, a person’s opinion that cramming for a test increases performance may be based on her memory of passing an exam after pulling an all-night study session. Similarly, a researcher’s conclusion against cramming might be based on studies comparing the test performances of people who studied the material in different ways (e.g., cramming versus study sessions spaced out over time).
In these scenarios, both scientific and everyday conclusions are drawn from a limited sample of potential observations.
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning starts with general principles that are applied to specific instances (the reverse of inductive reasoning)
For example, all living cells contain DNA. From this, you can reason—deductively—that any specific living cell (of an elephant, or a person, or a snake) will therefore contain DNA.
What is inductive reasoning?
You might look at your local weather forecast and see a high likelihood of rain. This is because the meteorologist has used inductive reasoning to create her forecast.
She has taken current observations—lots of dense clouds coming toward your city—and compared them to historical weather patterns associated with rain, making a reasonable prediction of a high probability of rain. The meteorologist has not proven it will rain, however, by pointing out the oncoming clouds.
What is anecdotal evidence, and what is it limited by?
Anecdotal evidence – derived from personal experience and unsystematic observations (e. g., “common sense,”) – is limited by the quality and representativeness of observations, and by memory shortcomings
What is a characteristic of well defined research?
Well-designed research relies on observations that are systematically recorded, of high quality, and representative of the population it claims to describe.
What is Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)?
It assesses the probability that the collected data (the observations) would be the same if there were no relationship between the variables in the study.
Using our example, the NHST would test the probability that the researcher would find a link between age and class performance if there were, in reality, no such link.
what is type I error?
when the researcher concludes there is a relationship between two variables but, in reality, there is not
what is type II error?
when the data fail to show a relationship between variables that actually exists
What is causality?
In research, the determination that one variable causes—is responsible for—an effect.
What is flashbulb memory?
A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available.
What is the scientist-practicioner model?
A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills.
