Week 2 Readings

Question 1

What is meant by a cause-and-effect conclusion?

Answer 1

Cause and effect is the relationship between two events or situations where the cause is directly responsible for creating the effect.

Question 2

What is the distribution of a variable?

Answer 2

The pattern of variation

Question 3

What is a p-value?

Answer 3

The p-value tells you how often a random process would give a result at least as extreme as what was found in the actual study, assuming there was nothing other than random chance at play.

The p-value tells you how likely it is that the result you got happened just by random luck.

We often compare the p-value to some cut-off value (called the level of significance, typically around 0.05). If the p-value is smaller than that cut-off value, then we reject the hypothesis that only random chance was at play here
(P is low REJECT THE HO)

Question 4

What is random sampling?

Answer 4

In its simplest form, random sampling involves numbering every member of the population and then using a computer to randomly select the subset to be surveyed.

Most polls don’t operate exactly like this, but they do use probability-based sampling methods to select individuals from nationally representative panels.

Question 5

What is the margin of error?

Answer 5

The expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level.

Question 6

Non-random samples are often suspect to bias, what would this cause to happen in our results?

Answer 6

This means that the sampling method would systematically over-represent some segments of the population and under-represent others.

Question 7

Validity

Answer 7

The degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure.

Question 8

Statistical significance

Answer 8

A result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone.

Question 9

Reliability

Answer 9

The consistency of a measure.

Question 10

What is one downside of the laboratory experiment in terms of psychological science?

Answer 10

It carefully controls conditions and their effects, which can yield findings that are out of touch with reality and have limited use when trying to understand real-world behavior

It’s important to conduct research outside the psychology laboratory, within participants’ natural, everyday environments, and reviews existing methodologies for studying daily life

Question 11

What is a key challenge researchers face when designing a study?

Answer 11

Researchers must balance Internal Validity (making sure the study clearly shows cause and effect) and External Validity (making sure the results can be applied to other settings and larger groups).

Question 12

Why are internal and external validity difficult to achieve at the same time?

Answer 12

Controlling all factors in a study (for Internal Validity) often creates an artificial setting, making it different from real-world situations. If an experiment is too far from real life, it may limit how useful or generalizable the findings are (External Validity).

This means usually one type of validity is prioritized over another.

Question 13

What is ecological validity?

Answer 13

Ecological validity refers to how much an effect observed in a study applies to everyday life conditions.

Question 14

What is the Experience-Sampling Method?

Answer 14

A method where participants report their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at different moments throughout the day.

Question 15

What is Ecological Momentary Assessment?

Answer 15

A method that repeatedly samples participants’ real-world experiences, behaviors, and physiology in real time.

Question 15

What is the Diary Method?

Answer 15

A method where participants fill out a questionnaire at the end of the day about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from that day.

Question 16

What is the usefulness of the Ecological Momentary Assessment, and the Experience-Sampling Method?

Answer 16

these approaches have allowed researchers to do research that is more externally valid, or more generalizable to real life, than the traditional laboratory experiment.

Question 17

What is the Day Reconstruction Method (DRM)?

Answer 17

A method where participants look back on the previous day, break it into episodes, and report their experiences and feelings for each part of the day. This helps researchers understand what situations lead to positive or negative moods.

Question 18

How is everyday behavior studied in the lab versus the real world?

Answer 18

In the lab, behavior is studied through direct observation (e.g., video recordings). In the real world, this is much harder, as capturing every detail of a person’s actions and interactions would require an incredibly detailed “detective’s report” of their entire life.

Question 19

What is the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR)?

Answer 19

The EAR is a method where participants carry an audio recorder (or use an app) that periodically records brief snippets of ambient sounds throughout their day. These sound bites give researchers a natural sample of the participants’ daily activities, social interactions, and emotions.

Question 20

What is ambulatory physiological monitoring?

Answer 20

monitoring physiological reactions as people go about their daily lives

Question 21

What is Ambulatory Assessment?

Answer 21

Ambulatory Assessment refers to methods used to study behavior, physiology, experiences, and environments of people in their everyday, natural settings.

Question 22

What is Linguistic Analysis?

Answer 22

A method that uses word frequency counts to automatically extract grammatical and psychological information from a text.

Question 23

Why is Psychology important for addressing climate change?

Answer 23

Psychology helps in understanding how people respond to and make decisions about climate change. It informs policies on conservation, energy efficiency, and sustainable living by studying how natural and built environments affect health and behavior, and how behavior impacts the environment.

Question 24

How does human behavior impact the environment?

Answer 24

People act more environmentally friendly when they know what to do and believe they can do it.

Materialistic values are linked to lower wellbeing and less eco-friendly behavior.

Community-oriented individuals with higher wellbeing tend to be more pro-environmental.

Justifying behaviors can limit good intentions towards the environment.

Recognizing one’s carbon footprint and identifying eco-friendly products is challenging.

Developing a global identity can motivate pro-environmental actions.

Question 25

How does the natural environment impact mental health and wellbeing?

Answer 25

Natural landscapes boost positive emotions and reduce negative ones.

Living near nature lowers long-term risks of depression, anxiety, and stress.

Children near nature cope better with stress and develop resilience; those without are more likely to face emotional issues later.

Frequency of interactions with nature is more important than time spent.

Green spaces should be accessible and widespread in cities for all ages and abilities.

Nature contact enhances pro-social behaviors, attention, working memory, and self-control.

Effective disaster preparedness programs include emotional and mental health considerations.

Question 26

What is “full-cycle psychology” according to Mortensen and Cialdini?

Answer 26

Full-cycle psychology involves:
- Using naturalistic observation to find effects in the real world.
- Applying theory to understand underlying processes.
- Using experimentation to verify effects and processes.
- Returning to natural settings to confirm experimental findings.

Question 27

What are the two main types of psychological research?

Answer 27

Experimental Research: Tests hypotheses by manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables without manipulating them to see if they are associated.

Using a mix of methods helps address the limitations of each.

Question 28

How do psychologists measure abstract concepts?

Answer 28

Psychologists use operational definitions to specify exactly how a concept (like happiness or intelligence) will be measured.

Question 29

Independent vs dependent variable

Answer 29

Independent: The variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.

Dependent: The variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.

Question 30

Why is random assignment important in experiments?

Answer 30

Random assignment ensures that any differences between groups are due to the independent variable, allowing us to infer that this variable causes any observed changes

Question 31

What are confounds in experiments, and why should they be avoided?

Answer 31

Confounds are factors that could affect the outcome of an experiment and undermine causal inferences. Examples include:

Placebo Effect: Participants may feel better just because they think they are receiving treatment.

Participant Demand: Participants may behave in ways they think the experimenter wants.

Experimenter Expectations: The experimenter’s knowledge or expectations may influence their observations.

Avoiding confounds helps ensure that any differences observed are truly due to the independent variable.

Question 32

What is a double-blind procedure and how does it help in experiments?

Answer 32

In a double-blind procedure, neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition the participant is in. This helps prevent confounds related to placebo effects, participant demand, and experimenter expectations, ensuring more reliable results.

Question 33

What is correlational research and what can it reveal?

Answer 33

Correlational research involves passively observing and measuring phenomena without intervention. It identifies patterns and relationships between two variables at a time but cannot determine causation.

For example, a study found that people who spent more money on others were generally happier, but it didn’t show that spending money caused the happiness.

Question 34

What is an r-value?

Answer 34

A correlation coefficient provides information about the direction and strength of the association between two variables.

With a positive correlation, the two variables go up or down together.

A negative correlation is one in which the two variables move in opposite directions.

Strength of Correlation:
- Strong Correlation: Dots are tightly clustered along a line (high absolute r value).
- Weak Correlation: Dots are more spread out (low absolute r value).
- No Correlation: Dots show no discernible pattern (r = 0).

Question 35

T or F:

Correlation shows causality

Answer 35

False

correlation does not mean causation

Question 36

What are some qualitative research designs and their purposes?

Answer 36

Participant Observation: Researcher joins a group to study its dynamics from within. Example: Festinger’s study of a secretive cult by pretending to be a member.

Case Study: In-depth examination of a single person or context, often used when experimental or correlational methods aren’t feasible. Example: Studying the effects of a rare brain injury on happiness.

Narrative Analysis: Analyzing personal stories and accounts to understand individual or group psychology, focusing on themes, structure, and dialogue.

Question 37

What is a quasi-experimental design, and how does it differ from a true experimental design?

Answer 37

Quasi-Experimental Design:
- Definition: A research design similar to an experimental design but lacks random assignment to conditions.
- Method: Uses existing group memberships (e.g., married vs. single) as independent variables.
- Limitations: Causal inferences are more difficult to make due to potential pre-existing differences between groups.

True Experimental Design:
- Definition: A research design where participants are randomly assigned to different conditions.
- Method: Ensures that any differences observed can be attributed to the manipulated independent variable.
- Strengths: Allows for clearer causal inferences due to control over confounding variables.

Question 38

What are longitudinal studies, and what are their key features?

Answer 38

Definition: Research studies that track the same individuals over extended periods.

Duration: Can range from a few weeks to several decades.

Purpose: To observe changes and developments in the same participants over time, allowing researchers to identify patterns and causal relationships.

Strengths: Provide valuable evidence for testing theories and understanding long-term effects.

Challenges: Can be costly and time-consuming, especially when involving many participants over many years.

Question 39

What are the advantages and uses of surveys in research?

Answer 39

Advantages:
- Reach a large number of participants.
- `Lower cost and time commitment compared to lab studies.

Uses:
- Primarily for correlational research, but can also be used in experiments.
Example: King and Napa (1998) used surveys to investigate whether happy people were judged as more likely to go to heaven compared to unhappy people.

Question 40

What are some important tradeoffs to consider in research design?

Answer 40

Resource Availability:
Time and money constraints can influence the choice of research method. For instance, longitudinal studies require more time and resources compared to surveys. In practical terms, researchers might choose quicker methods like surveys for initial exploration and then pursue more intensive methods if results are promising.

Ethical Considerations:
Some research questions involve conditions that are unethical to manipulate experimentally, such as brain injuries, war experiences, or abusive environments. Ethical concerns guide researchers to use alternative methods like observational studies or case studies to explore these topics without causing harm.

Practical vs. Ethical Choices:
When resources are limited or ethical constraints are significant, researchers may opt for correlational or quasi-experimental designs, even if they come with limitations compared to more controlled methods like experiments or longitudinal studies.