Week 17 Readings Flashcards
How do drive states differ from other affective or emotional states?
Drive states differ in that they generate behaviors that provide specific biological benefits for the body.
While all affective states have valence (positive or negative) and motivate approach or avoidance behaviors, drive states, like hunger and thirst, lead to actions that restore bodily functions (e.g., hunger motivates eating to increase blood sugar, and thirst motivates drinking to restore water levels).
How do internal and external cues interact to influence different drive states, and what are the common properties shared by all drive states despite their unique triggers and associated behaviors?
Different drive states are influenced by a combination of internal (e.g., visceral signals) and external cues (e.g., sensory signals), with the specific mix varying across drives.
For example, hunger is triggered by internal signals like low blood sugar and external cues like the sight or smell of food.
These cues result in distinct cognitive and emotional states, leading to different behaviors.
However, all drive states share common properties, such as their role in motivating behaviors that restore essential biological functions, regardless of their specific triggers or the behaviors they elicit.
What is a set point?
An ideal level that the system being regulated must be monitored and compared to. (for homeostasis)
How do homeostatic mechanisms use “punishments” and “rewards” to motivate behaviors that restore balance, and how can this be likened to a parental role?
Homeostatic mechanisms use both “punishments” and “rewards” to motivate actions that restore balance.
- Punishments, like the discomfort of hunger or feeling too cold, occur when the body deviates from its set point.
- Rewards, such as the pleasure felt when eating or warming up, happen when behaviors move the system back toward balance.
This process can be likened to “molecular parents” who respond to behavior—raising their voice (punishments) when homeostasis is disrupted and offering rewards when proper actions are taken, reinforcing behaviors that restore equilibrium.
How do drive states like hunger influence attention and decision-making, and what happens when their intensity increases?
As drive states intensify, they focus attention on elements, activities, and resources that address the biological needs linked to the drive. For example, hunger directs attention toward food, making unrelated outcomes or objects less appealing.
- At high levels of intensity, individuals may prioritize satisfying the drive over almost anything else, even sacrificing other needs.
For instance, a hungry person may reject fun activities until they’ve eaten. In extreme cases, such as addiction, the drive state can dominate all thoughts, leading to neglect of basic needs like nourishment or sleep, as seen with cocaine addicts who focus entirely on the substance during binges.
How do drive states, like hunger or sexual arousal, influence time perspective and decision-making?
Drive states not only narrow attention toward immediate needs but also collapse time perspective, making individuals more impatient.
How do intense drive states, such as hunger or pain, influence one’s focus on the self versus others, and what impact does this have on behavior?
Intense drive states tend to narrow focus inwardly, making individuals more self-centered and less likely to engage in altruistic behaviors. When people are hungry, in pain, or craving substances, their attention is directed primarily toward fulfilling their own immediate needs, often at the expense of others.
This self-focus can undermine altruism. For instance, interrogation techniques sometimes involve depriving individuals of food, water, or sleep to trigger such intense drive states, causing them to prioritize their own relief over loyalty or concern for others, leading to the disclosure of information that may betray those close to them (Biderman, 1960).
What are the three forms of attention-narrowing caused by intense drive states?
: The three forms of attention-narrowing caused by intense drive states are:
- Narrowing of focus toward immediate needs: Drive states direct attention toward actions that fulfill biological needs (e.g., hunger focusing on food).
- Collapse of time perspective: Drive states make individuals more impatient, prioritizing immediate gratification over future rewards (e.g., impatience during sexual arousal or addiction cravings).
- Self-focus over others: Drive states tend to make individuals more self-centered, reducing altruism and making them prioritize personal needs over others’ welfare (e.g., hunger or pain leading to selfish behaviors).
How is hunger triggered and how do internal and external cues influence eating behaviors?
Hunger is triggered primarily by low glucose levels in the blood, prompting behaviors that restore glucose homeostasis (Rolls, 2000).
Other internal cues, such as the breakdown of fats for energy, and external cues like the time of day, proximity to the next meal, or sensory stimuli (e.g., sight, smell, taste, and touch of food) can also drive hunger.
Additionally, hunger may have subtle nuances, prompting cravings for specific foods that correct nutritional imbalances, often unconsciously. For instance, a couple stranded at sea craved fish eyes, unknowingly seeking vitamin C to replenish a deficiency (Walker, 2014).
What role does the hypothalamus, specifically the lateral hypothalamus (LH), play in eating behavior?
The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating eating behavior by synthesizing and secreting hormones. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is particularly involved in hunger.
Damage to the LH can completely eliminate the desire to eat, causing animals to starve unless force-fed (Anand & Brobeck, 1951). Conversely, artificially stimulating the LH with electrical currents can induce eating behavior, even when food is available (Andersson, 1951).
How does activation of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) influence the desirability of food versus nonfood items?
Activation of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) increases the desirability of food while decreasing the desirability of nonfood items.
In the study by Brendl, Markman, and Messner (2003), the participants were “primed” by giving them a handful of popcorn, which triggered feelings of hunger. This hunger made food-related items more appealing because their drive to satisfy hunger was activated. On the other hand, nonfood-related items were rated less favorably because the focus shifted toward satisfying the immediate need for food. Essentially, the act of eating (or being hungry) “primed” participants to prioritize food and diminish the perceived value of other, non-food-related products.
What is satiation?
The state of being full to satisfaction and no longer desiring to take on more.
What role does the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) play in eating behavior, and how does it interact with the lateral hypothalamus (LH)?
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is primarily involved in satiety, helping to signal when to stop eating. Lesions to the VMH can lead to overeating and obesity, as it disrupts the ability to feel full.
However, the relationship between the VMH and the lateral hypothalamus (LH), which controls hunger, is complex. While the LH promotes hunger and eating, the VMH regulates satiety. Interestingly, rats with VMH lesions can become quite selective or finicky about the food they eat, indicating that the VMH also has a nuanced role beyond simply controlling hunger and fullness (Teitelbaum, 1955).
How do sensory cortices contribute to eating behavior, and how does the hungry drive state affect their function?
The sensory cortices (visual, olfactory, and taste areas) play a key role in identifying food, helping individuals recognize what is good or safe to eat.
These areas provide informational input but do not generate hedonic (pleasure) feelings associated with eating.
- The pleasure of eating comes from other brain areas, not the sensory cortices themselves.
When an individual is in a hungry drive state, the sensory cortices become more attuned to food-related stimuli, enhancing the ability to detect food. This heightened sensitivity helps prioritize food recognition and selection during hunger.
How does hunger affect the brain’s processing of food’s reward value and the motivation to eat?
Hunger increases the reward value ascribed to food, making it more motivating to consume.
Neurons in brain areas that process reward values, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, become more active when food is seen or tasted during a hungry state. This heightened neural response reflects an increased motivation to eat, as the brain assigns a higher reward value to food when hunger is present, compared to when the organism is satiated.
Essentially, the hungrier an individual is, the more rewarding food becomes, driving stronger motivation to eat.
What is the preoptic area?
A region in the anterior hypothalamus involved in generating and regulating male sexual behavior.
How does the preoptic area of the hypothalamus influence sexual behavior in males, and what happens when it is damaged?
The preoptic area, located in the anterior hypothalamus, plays a crucial role in sexual arousal and pleasure in males. When this area is damaged, male sexual behavior is severely impaired.
For example, rats with lesions in the preoptic area will still seek out sexual partners, but once a partner is secured, they lose the motivation to initiate sex. This suggests that while the preoptic area is essential for the initiation and motivation of sexual behavior, its damage prevents the continuation of sexual activity.
How does the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) influence female sexual behavior, and how does it differ from the role of the preoptic area in males?
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) plays a critical role in female sexual behavior by regulating sexual receptivity.
- It controls the excretion of estradiol, an estrogen hormone that influences a female’s willingness to accept a sexual partner.
Neurons in the VMH send signals to the periaqueductal gray (a region in the midbrain), which typically triggers defensive behaviors like freezing or running. However, during sexual arousal, these defensive responses are weakened, and lordosis behavior, a physical posture signaling sexual receptivity, is initiated (Kow & Pfaff, 1998).
In contrast to the preoptic area in males, which directly drives sexual initiation, the VMH in females regulates sexual receptivity and influences behaviors that invite mating.
For females, though, the preoptic area fulfills different roles, such as functions involved with eating behaviors. Instead, there is a different region of the brain, the _________________ that plays a similar role for females as the preoptic area does for males.
ventromedial hypothalamus (the lower, central part)
What are the similarities and differences between males and femals in sexual arousal/behaviour?
Similarities:
- Both the preoptic area in males and the VMH in females play central roles in regulating sexual behavior.
- Both areas are involved in sexual receptivity and motivation, triggering behaviors associated with sexual arousal.
Differences:
- The preoptic area in males is directly responsible for sexual arousal and initiating sexual behavior. Damage to this area impairs sexual initiation, although the desire for a partner remains.
- The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) in females regulates sexual receptivity through the excretion of estradiol, an estrogen hormone. The VMH controls the initiation of sexual behaviors like lordosis, which serves as an invitation to mate.
- The preoptic area in females is involved in eating behaviors, unlike in males, where it is primarily focused on sexual arousal.
Additional Insights:
- Neural overlaps: Areas involved in male sexuality overlap with those related to aggression, while those involved in female sexuality are more connected to nurturance.
- The septal nucleus is important for sexual pleasure in both males and females and is associated with sexual orgasm. It shows rhythmic spiking activity during orgasm and is a site of voluntary self-stimulation in rats.
What is the preoptic area?
A region in the anterior hypothalamus involved in generating and regulating male sexual behavior.
For females, though, the preoptic area fulfills different roles, such as functions involved with eating behaviors.
How do brain areas related to male and female sexuality differ in terms of overlapping functions?
Male Sexuality: Brain areas for male sexuality overlap with those for aggression, linking sexual arousal to assertive behaviors.
Female Sexuality: Brain areas for female sexuality overlap with those for nurturance, connecting sexual arousal to caregiving and bonding.
What role does the septal nucleus play in sexual pleasure for both males and females?
The septal nucleus is crucial for sexual pleasure in both sexes. It receives connections from brain regions like the hypothalamus and amygdala and shows rhythmic activity during sexual orgasm. It is also a site where rats will reliably self-stimulate. In humans, stimulating this area or injecting acetylcholine can induce a sensation of imminent orgasm.
What is a key difference between drive states in terms of their triggers?
A key difference between drive states is the extent to which they are triggered by internal versus external stimuli:
- Thirst is triggered by internal factors like low fluid levels and increased salt concentration.
- Fear is triggered by perceived external threats.
- Drug cravings are influenced by both internal homeostatic mechanisms and external cues (visual, olfactory, contextual).
- Maternity-related drives are triggered by specific life events.
This diversity makes the study of drive states scientifically important, with many questions still unanswered regarding their neurocognitive foundations, environmental factors, and behavioral impacts.
How do drive states impact modern behavior, and what are the real-world consequences?
Drive states like hunger and sexual arousal, evolved over millions of years, sometimes lead to behavior poorly suited for modern life:
- Obesity epidemic: Once beneficial mechanisms for hunger now cause overconsumption when rich, high-calorie foods are easily accessible.
- Sexual arousal: Unchecked sexual impulses can lead to harmful decisions, such as politicians sacrificing careers and relationships due to adultery.
These mismatches between ancient drive states and modern conveniences contribute to major societal issues, like obesity, drug addiction, and even school massacres.
Which of the following demonstrates a drive state?
Alisa has not had anything not eat all day. She is now starving and is going to go get a sandwich..
Zoey has an assignment due in her astronomy class, and she has to call and reserve an appointment the use the campus telescope..
Oscar is in bed when he remembers that tomorrow is trash day, so he gets out of bed and takes his garbage cans out to the curb..
Nicholas is excited when he sees his favorite brand of cereal at the store and buys five boxes..
Phillipe dislikes paying taxes and is looking for ways to claim deductions that will allow him to pay fewer taxes..
Alisa
How do drive states differ from other affective or emotional states?
a) Drive states do not show up in human beings until after puberty..
b) Drive states are learned over time..
c) Drive states come to be associated with other incentives that have material value..
d) Drive states generate specific benefits for the body..
e) Drive states only exist with a positive affective valence..
d)
One of the ways in which drive states can narrow a person’s attention is by collapsing their time perspective toward:
a perceived deceleration of time..
the present..
the past..
both the past and the future..
a perceived acceleration of time.
the present
Dr. Shaw creates a small a lesion in a specific part of a rat’s brain. The result is that the rat stops eating and soon dies of starvation. Which area of the brain was lesioned?
a) the superior colliculus.
b) the ventromedial basal ganglia.
c) bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
d) the lateral hypothalamus.
e) the nucleus accumbens
d)
Which area of the brain is involved in both sexual arousal and pleasure in females, as well as the satiation of hunger in both sexes?
a) the ventromedial hypothalamus.
b) the periaqueductal grey.
c) the ascending pyramidal tracts.
d) the dorsolateral amygdala.
e) Broca’s area in the frontal lobe.
a)
How do emotions contribute to well-being, and what factors influence their impact?
Emotions play a crucial role in well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply “positive is good, negative is bad.” Three key factors influence how emotions affect well-being:
- Intensity: Both strong positive and negative emotions can have different effects on well-being.
- Fluctuation: The degree of emotional fluctuation matters—frequent changes in emotional states may affect health differently than stable emotions.
- Context: The context in which emotions are experienced also shapes their impact on well-being. While generally beneficial to experience more positive and fewer negative emotions, this is not always the best approach to leading a fulfilling life.
: How do emotions contribute to well-being beyond momentary pleasure or displeasure?
esearchers like Isen, Carver, Fredrickson, and others have explored whether emotions do more than just make us feel good or bad. Modern research shows that emotions impact cognition, behavior, and social interactions.
For example, happiness not only feels pleasant but also promotes friendliness and collaboration, enhancing relationships. Over time, these emotional effects contribute to improved mental and physical health.
Why is it premature to conclude that experiencing only positive emotions and avoiding negative ones is best for well-being?
Recent research highlights three key factors that influence how emotions impact well-being:
- Intensity: Positive and negative emotions may affect well-being differently at various intensities.
- Fluctuation: Stable emotions may have different effects from emotions that fluctuate significantly.
- Context: The context in which an emotion is experienced can determine its impact on well-being. Thus, the answer to “Which emotions should we feel?” depends on these factors.
Why can experiencing very high levels of positive emotion be harmful?
High levels of positive emotion can lead to risky behaviors like binge eating and drug use, and are also associated with mania. Research shows that the relationship between positive emotion and well-being follows an inverted U-shape: more positive emotion increases well-being up to a point, beyond which it can decrease well-being. This supports Aristotle’s idea that moderation is key to a good life.
Can too little negative emotion be problematic for well-being?
Yes, too little negative emotion may harm well-being. Research suggests that individuals who avoid negative emotions tend to have worse life satisfaction, lower social support, and poorer academic and physical health.
For example, not feeling enough embarrassment after a social mistake can damage relationships.
Low negative emotions are also linked to psychopathology, such as blunted sadness in depression and low fear in psychopathy.
How does emotional fluctuation impact well-being?
Greater emotional fluctuations are generally linked to worse well-being. For example, fluctuating positive emotions can lead to lower well-being and increased depression, while fluctuating negative emotions are associated with depression, borderline personality disorder, and neuroticism. Emotional instability, reflected by large fluctuations, may contribute to these negative outcomes.
What are the three critical contexts that affect how emotion relates to well-being?
The three contexts are:
- External environment: The setting or situation where the emotion is experienced.
- Other emotional responses: The physiological and behavioral reactions that accompany the emotion.
- Other emotions: The presence of other emotions being experienced at the same time.
How does the context of a situation affect the experience of emotion?
The context in which an emotion is experienced significantly influences whether it is beneficial. For example, happiness is appropriate and beneficial at a birthday party, but the same level of happiness at a funeral would likely be detrimental to well-being.
How does the context influence the function and impact of emotions on well-being?
Emotions serve different functions and their impact on well-being depends on whether they are appropriate for the situation. For example, fear helps avoid danger, happiness promotes cooperation, and anger energizes people for competition or confrontation. The emotional response that best matches the context can positively influence well-being, while mismatched emotions may be less beneficial.
How does the pursuit of contextually appropriate emotions affect well-being?
People who experience emotions fitting the context (e.g., anger when confronting someone) tend to recover better from trauma and depression, and experience greater well-being. Conversely, those who pursue emotions regardless of context, even positive ones like happiness, may experience lower subjective well-being, more depression, greater loneliness, and worse performance (e.g., grades).
What is emotional coherence?
The degree to which emotional responses (subjective experience, behavior, physiology, etc.) converge with one another.
What is emotion coherence and how does it relate to emotional experiences?
Emotion coherence refers to the degree to which different emotional responses—such as behaviors, facial expressions, and physiological activation—occur together when experiencing an emotion.
While these responses often align (e.g., feeling excited, smiling, and having a faster heartbeat), they do not always co-occur in all instances or for all individuals. Some people may choose not to express their emotions, resulting in lower coherence.
Does emotion coherence impact well-being beyond just emotional experience?
Yes, emotion coherence—how well behaviors align with emotional experiences—matters for well-being.
In a study where participants watched a funny film clip, those whose behaviors (e.g., facial expressions) aligned with their positive emotional experiences showed lower depressive symptoms and higher well-being six months later. This effect was found even after controlling for the overall intensity of positive emotions, suggesting that well-being is enhanced when emotions are expressed congruently with inner feelings.
Why does emotional coherence predict well-being?
Emotional coherence predicts well-being because emotions play a crucial role in social communication. When an individual’s emotional expression doesn’t match their internal experience, it can confuse others and reduce social connection, which impacts well-being.
Research shows that individuals with lower coherence feel less socially connected, contributing to worse well-being.
Additionally, people who suppress their emotions tend to have poorer well-being and struggle with social relationships, supporting the idea that authenticity in emotional expression is key to positive social interactions.
Can people experience multiple emotions at once, and how does this impact well-being?
Yes, people can experience positive and negative emotions simultaneously. These emotions are independent, not opposites, so individuals can feel happy and sad at the same time, like when winning a prize that’s less than expected. Emotions like schadenfreude or nostalgia show how mixed feelings can coexist.
The combination of emotions influences well-being: the other emotions a person feels during an experience can shape the overall impact of the emotion on their well-being.
Can experiencing mixed emotions improve well-being?
Yes, experiencing mixed emotions can be beneficial for well-being. For instance, bereaved spouses who expressed both positive and negative emotions during their grief recovered more quickly (Bonanno & Keltner, 1997). Additionally, adults who experienced more mixed emotions over 10 years were found to be physically healthier (Hershfield et al., 2013).
The ability to experience positive emotions alongside negative ones can help individuals cope more effectively with stress (Larsen et al., 2003).
True or False: Research has found that participants who want to feel emotions that match the context at hand (e.g., anger when confronting someone)—even if that emotion was negative—are more likely to experience greater well-being
True
What is the focus of affective neuroscience?
Affective neuroscience studies how the brain generates emotional responses, which involve physical changes (e.g., facial expressions), autonomic nervous system activity, subjective feelings, and motivations to act.
It seeks to understand how brain structures and chemicals contribute to emotions, providing evidence that supports treatments for emotional disorders like depression.
How do human brains and emotional responses compare to those of nonhuman animals, and how do neuroscience techniques differ for each?
Human brains are complex and flexible, while nonhuman animals have simpler nervous systems and basic emotional responses.
Invasive techniques (e.g., electrode implantation, lesioning) are more easily used in animals, while human neuroscience relies on noninvasive techniques like EEG, fMRI, and studies of brain lesions.
Animal research provides useful models, as affective circuits in social mammals, such as rats and monkeys, function similarly to those in humans.
Brain circuits located deep within the brain below the ___________ are primarily responsible for generating basic emotions
cerebral cortex
What is the role of the appetitive neuronal system in affective responses, and what happens when it is aroused or underaroused?
The appetitive neuronal system is involved in feelings of desire or the appetite for rewards, often referred to as “wanting,” “seeking,” or “behavioral activation sensitivity.”
When aroused, it motivates the organism to search for rewards like food or sex, showing enthusiasm and curiosity. When underaroused, the organism may appear depressed and helpless.
Which brain structures are involved in the appetitive neuronal system, and how do they respond to stimulation or drugs?
Key brain structures in the appetitive system include the lateral hypothalamus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and frontal cortex. When electrically stimulated, animals show pleasure, indicating these regions’ involvement in desire.
The neurotransmitter dopamine, produced in mesolimbic and mesocortical circuits, activates these regions, creating excitement and anticipation. These areas are also sensitive to drugs like cocaine and amphetamines, which mimic dopamine’s effects.
What role does the left frontal cortex play in appetitive emotions, and how is it linked to dopamine?
The left frontal cortex is more active during appetitive emotions such as desire and interest.
Research shows that damage to the left frontal cortex can lead to depression, while damage to the right frontal cortex is linked to mania.
Studies using EEG and fMRI confirm increased left frontal activation in response to appetitive stimuli, such as sucrose in infants or desirable foods in adults. This activation is also associated with dopamine, highlighting its role in approach-related emotions.
How do “liking” and “wanting” differ in terms of neural structures and behaviors?
“Liking” refers to the enjoyment of a reward and involves different neural structures from “wanting,” which is the desire for the reward.
Liking can be measured by behaviors such as licking speed, tongue protrusions, and facial expressions of pleasure, while wanting is shown by the willingness to work hard to obtain a reward.
Research on drug abuse illustrates this distinction, as addicts often desire drugs even when they no longer provide pleasure.
What is the nucleus accumbens?
A region of the basal forebrain located in front of the preoptic region.
How do brain regions involved in “liking” and “wanting” contribute to addiction?
Research shows that the nucleus accumbens and posterior ventral pallidum are involved in “liking” and are sensitive to opioids and endocannabinoids.
Stimulation of other areas in the reward system increases “wanting” but does not enhance “liking” and may even reduce enjoyment.
This distinction helps explain addiction, as individuals may continue to seek out rewards like cocaine, opiates, or gambling despite no longer feeling pleasure from them due to habituation.
What areas of the brain are involved in liking and pleasure, and how are they different?
- The nucleus accumbens and the ventral pallidum are involved in liking and are sensitive to opioids and endocannabinoids.
- The orbitofrontal cortex is involved in pleasure and activates in response to pleasant stimuli, such as food, money, pleasant smells, and attractive faces.
The key difference is that liking relates to enjoyment, while wanting is about desire, and they can be separated in the brain.
What brain structures and chemicals are involved in the fear response?
The fear circuit extends from the central amygdala to the periaqueductal gray in the midbrain.
These areas are sensitive to
- glutamate,
- corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF),
- adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
- cholecystokinin (CCK),
- and other neuropeptides.
Benzodiazepines and other tranquilizers inhibit activation in these regions, reducing fear and anxiety.
What is the periaqueductal gray?
The gray matter in the midbrain near the cerebral aqueduct.
How does the brain process fear responses when encountering a potential threat, like a snake?
The brain uses two pathways to send sensory information to the amygdala for a fear response:
- Fast but less accurate pathway – Information travels from the thalamus directly to the amygdala, allowing for a rapid reaction before conscious awareness.
- Slower but more accurate pathway – Information first goes from the thalamus to the visual cortex, then to the amygdala, refining the perception.
Damage to the amygdala or ventral hippocampus disrupts fear conditioning, impairing the ability to learn fear responses.
What are the neural and chemical mechanisms involved in anger?
Anger is an arousing emotion that motivates approach and attack behaviors. It is triggered by factors such as goal frustration, physical pain, or territorial intrusion. The anger circuit extends from the medial amygdala, through the hypothalamus, to the periaqueductal gray in the midbrain. Anger is linked to appetitive circuits, meaning lack of an expected reward can provoke rage. Left frontal cortical activation increases during anger, supporting its role as an approach-related emotion.
- Neurotransmitters involved: Possibly Substance P, testosterone, and arginine-vasopressin.
- Inhibitors: Opioids and high doses of antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine) suppress anger responses.
What brain regions and neurotransmitters are involved in attachment and nurturing behaviors?
In social animals like humans, attachment involves emotions such as love, warmth, and affection.
Maternal nurturing is primarily associated with the dorsal preoptic area and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
These regions overlap with areas involved in sexual desire and respond to neurotransmitters like oxytocin, arginine-vasopressin, and endogenous opioids (endorphins and enkephalins), which promote bonding and caregiving behaviors.
Are the emotions that motivate nurturing behaviour the same as those that motivate staying close to an attachment figure to receive care and protection?
The emotions that motivate nurturing behavior (e.g., maternal care) are distinguishable from those that motivate staying close to an attachment figure in order to receive care and protection (e.g., infant attachment).
How is the neural attachment system related to separation distress?
The neural attachment system is sensitive to separation, producing emotions like grief, panic, and loneliness. When infant mammals, including humans, are separated from their mothers, they exhibit distress vocalizations (crying).
This system is centered in the midbrain periaqueductal gray, close to the pain circuits, suggesting that separation distress evolved from physical pain responses.
Other involved regions include the dorsomedial thalamus, ventral septum, dorsal preoptic region, and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, which also overlap with sexual and maternal circuits.
How do neurotransmitters influence separation distress and addiction?
Endogenous opiates, oxytocin, and prolactin reduce separation distress by promoting feelings of comfort and social bonding.
- Opiate drugs like morphine and heroin, as well as nicotine, mimic these effects, artificially producing pleasure and gratification, which may contribute to their addictive properties.
Panic attacks, which may be an intense form of separation distress, can be relieved by opiates.
Additionally, testosterone reduces separation distress by decreasing attachment needs, which may explain why panic attacks are more common in women than in men.
How does experience modify the responses of neural regions, specifically the nucleus accumbens?
The nucleus accumbens has distinct roles based on its front and back regions: the front is linked to appetitive behaviors (e.g., eating), while the back is involved in fearful defensive behaviors.
Experience can modify these responses.
- For instance, when rats are exposed to stressful environments, their fear-generating regions expand to the front, filling nearly 90% of the nucleus accumbens shell.
- In contrast, when exposed to preferred home environments, the fear regions shrink, and the appetitive regions expand toward the back, filling about 90% of the shell.
Why is it difficult to map emotions to specific brain regions, and how are structures like the amygdala organized?
Many brain structures, such as the amygdala, are complex and consist of distinct nuclei that perform different tasks. - For example, the amygdala can be divided into 13 nuclei in nonhuman primates, with regions responsible for functions like emotional expression and fear.
While fMRI can measure overall brain activity, it cannot precisely isolate the activity of individual nuclei.
Additionally, research shows that brain regions like the amygdala are involved in uncertainty and positive emotions, not just fear, making it difficult to map specific emotions to brain regions.
Damage to the __________ interferes with fear conditioning in both humans and non-human animals
amygdala
True or False: The amount of desire an individual feels toward a reward corresponds with how much he or she likes that reward
False
A structure in the brain associated with liking is the:
a) amygdala.
b) nucleus accumbens.
c) thalamus.
d) hypothalamus
b) nucleus accumbens.
What is an affect?
An emotional process; includes moods, subjective feelings, and discrete emotions.
