Vertebrate of BC Part 2 Flashcards
Pacific loon nesting
northern tip of BC
Pacific loon migration
huge groups (10's of thousands - >150,000 witnessed passing HG) large groups susceptible to anthropogenic issues (ex.oil spill)
Red-throated loon winter distribution
inshore marine
Alaska - California
solitary - small group (
Red-throated loon breeding distribution
small ponds/lakes within 20km of ocean, close to coast
rarely more than 1 pair per pond/lake
how can red-throated loons use small ponds
shortest take off distance of loons
some distribution overlap w/ Pacific loon (which is more competitive)
drizzle lake site characteristics
4 nesting territories
minimal wave exposure
abundant fish in lake
Red-throated loon nesting
choose perfect spot on lake based on fetch, choose site and practice nesting year before (even practice mating)
incubation 28 days
why RTLO nests on lake
less predators than ocean
RTLO defence
nesting- only protect ~2-3m
after hatching protection area enlarged
why RTLO only protects small area when nesting
protecting eggs from ooivores- raccoon, raven, squirrel
RTLO defence after chicks hatch
larger area to protect, defend against other birds
RTLO defending against other RTLO
same same defence in both sexes
RTLO defending against common loon
female takes chick to shore
male defends with very good success
why does RTLO have to defend against COLO
COLO eats other loon chicks!
RTLO male/female differences
male a little larger
slight difference in necks marks
brood patch
bald patch for direct heat transfer to eggs (while incubating)
Number of fish eaten vs. age of chick (days), RTLO
declines from ~20 - 10 @ 42 days - 0 @ 48 days
why does the number of fish eaten decrease (RTLO)
able to eat bigger fish
change diet at ~12 days from small fish (sand lace, gunnel) to intermediate (herring, smelt, cod..)
RTLO ocean trips
up to 18/day
hatchlings need ~20g/day
male carries larger fish
relative parental contribution, RTLO
males take longer trips to ocean males bring back less fish (but more weight) females 4X as much rearing males defend 100% successful total energetic investment equal
% of feeding failure vs. age of chick
100% of large fish (brought back by males) are lost up to 6days of age
loon abundance in Alaska, BC coast
Alaska- 50% decline in RTLO
Here- ~50% decline in COLO
opposite pattern.. displacing each other?
why do RTLO go to ocean to catch fish
anti-parasite mechanism
tape worms in freshwater fish
COLO chicks die
where are raptors in the phylogeny
neoaves all in the top group, landbirds sister group to shorebirds not monophyletic falcons s.g. to owls s.g. to hawks&eagles
BC raptors
30 species
BC raptor wing span
~50cm - 300cm
characterize niche space
Northern Spotted Owl BC range
only SW tip, restricted to old growth coastal forest, declining
BC nesting pairs, spotted owl
30-100
Spotted Owl characteristics
territorial, nocturnal, solitary in winter, pair in spring/summer, home range 3-50km^2
spotted owl diet
small mammals, birds
spotted owl predators
red-tailed hawk, great-horned owls, goshawks, marten
spotted owl nest
no nest, lay 2 eggs on twigs or in cavities of large conifers
spotted owl status
endangered (COSEWIC)
declining ~20%/yr
extinction probably inevitable
bald eagle plumage
4th or 5th year
bald eagle characteristic
primarily scavenging, piscivory
live 20-30years
bald eagle breeding
largest nest of any NA bird, 6000kg, 6m deep, multi year
35 day incubation
12 week pre-fledging period
of west coast bald eagles
50,000 BC and Alaska
Bald Eagle dominant diet
autumn- salmon
winter - carrion
spring - herring, eulachon
summer- birds
carrion
dead and decaying flesh of an animal
eulachon
small anadromous ocean fish, smelt found along Pacific coast of NA, N Cali- Alaska.
unusually high in lipid content
bald eagle and gull, Barkley Sound study
bald eagle abundance peaked during incubation/hatching of gull eggs - influences activity of gulls and could impact reproductive success
Murre and Cormorant abundance based on peregrine falcon, triangle island
highest abundance when peregrine falcon were near (nesting nearby), when away bald eagle and gulls lead to major decrease in nesting/reproductive success
top-down effect of top predator
eyrie/aerie
the nest of a bird (such as an eagle or hawk) built high up on a cliff or on the top of a mountain
bald eagle kleptoparasitism
pirates ducks captured by peregrine falcons, peregrines must increase kill rate (0.05/hr - 0.18/hr) to compensate
Urban Barred Owl
in BC 30-40yrs, succesful in urban area b/c of rat prevalence
Barred owl range expansion
displacing Northern Spotted Owl, major habitat/diet overlap
Barred owl removal
lethally removed, spotted owl population recovered in that area
Cooper’s Hawk diet
small-med size birds = majority of diet, American Robin, European Starling (invasive), House Sparrow (invasive)
taking advantage of invasives
fraser delta raptor poisoning
carbofuran and fensulfothion persisted long enough in wet, low pH conditions of Fraser Delta to kill waterfowl and cause secondary poisoning of raptors months after application of the pesticides
BC nesting seabirds
15 species
5-6million
500 nest sites
best evidence supporting tetrapods on land 7400mya
fossil tracks
molecular data ambiguous
limbs occurred before move to land
the transition from dinosaurs to birds is characterized by
NOTHING
there is no transition
birds are dinosaurs
what is the major characteristic that allowed the evolution of flight in bids
low wing loading
birds are not the only animal that fly’s
loons are most closely related to
cormorant, albatross, pelican
aquatic/seabirds
changes in seabird abundance from 1980 - present
25% reduction in piscivores
75% reduction in pigeon guillemot
how do we measure changes in seabird abundance on our coast
no long term records
sediment cores
tree cores
sediment cores for determining changes in seabird abundance
guano reduction
The Guano Era
1845-1870
US annexed SP islands to extract guano, traded extensively for fertilizer
results of measuring bird abundance with tree cores
significant decrease in tree ring width in the area where trees were found to have burrows, likely due to decrease in burrowing bird density, decrease in guano (nutrients)
one problem with the tree ring method
small trees have lower N demand, can be picky, higher isotopic fractionation (this is the centre rings of the tree)
Gill nets
widespread (legal and illegal)
1million km of gillnet/yr, 300km/day
abandoned nets
In 1980’s asian commercial fishing used gill nets to 8m depth
seabirds and gillnets
100,000 - 715,000 drowned/yr
60% shearwater
25% tufted puffin
seabird-boat collision during darkness
largest impact - nocturnal fliers
bird attracted to light (law) and hit mast or rigging @ high speed
nocturnal fliers
auklets, murrelets, petrels
boat collision bird kill
1 night ~35petrels on deck, more in water?
1 40ft boat in Aleutian chain during spring snow storm had a 30,000 alcid, petrels kill in one night
offshore drilling and seabirds
routine blowouts- burn off natural gas extracted w/ oil (can be seen from space), seabirds fly into it
offshore drilling birdkill
10-100 puffins and murres/night/platform
oil tanker spill
Exxon Valdez
250,000 birds killed, 90species, 75% murres
freighters and seabirds, oil pollution in Newfoundland
1998-2000 average 315,000 murres and dovekies killed annually from illegal discharges of oil
incidence of oil pollution among the highest in the world
Cormorants: the world’s most hated bird?
people killing them because they eat fish
500,000 killed since 1998
won’t fix their perceived problem- prey are set by carrying capacity
Commercial fishing
depletion of herring population, sardine population, chum, huge decrease in estimated escapement
wide impacts
escapement
portion of anadromous fish population that escapes commercial/recreational fisheries and reaches freshwater spawning grounds
where does salmon carcass go
raven, crow, bear, marten, eagle, gull, invertebrates, plants
gulls and salmon run
most abundant vertebrate during salmon migration
found to consume ~20% of salmon carcass biomass and ~30% of salmon eggs
fishing down the foodweb
puts us more in competition with seabirds
importance of salmon return
highly correlated w/ many species abundance
important for winter ‘bulk up’
passerines and salmon run
salmon carcass– insects– songbirds
alien species that impact seabird colonies
Norway rat
Raccoon
Fox
importance of primary productivity distribution
highly correlated w/ seabird distribution
highest in N hemisphere
affected by T anomalies
T shift and Cassin’s Auklet
less successful in warm water
match-mismatch hypothesis
match-mismatch hypothesis
prey timing key factor in success
climate changes alter trophic interactions
T shift– bloom shift (timing)– not available at usual bird nesting time
BC mammals #
~150 species
BC mammals, native vs. introduce #
native - 136 species
introduced - 13species
BC mammals, terrestrial vs. marine #
terrestrial - 120 species
marine - 30 species
Mammal skull fenestra
one fenestra
synapsid
basal tetrapod fenestra
no fenestra
anapsid
acanthostega
BC mammal orders
Carnivora - canines, bears,.. Primates - aboriginals Rodentia - mouse, squirrel Lagomorpha - Hare Insectivora - Shrew Chiroptera - Bats Artiodactyl - ungulates Marsupial - opossum
most diverse group of mammals on the planet
Rodentia
squirrel, chipmunk, beaver, mice, gopher, porcupine
synapsid origin
carboniferous
synapsid radiation
first group of amniotes that diversified (before diapsid)
synapsids were most abundant tetrapods when
Paleozoic
mammal body size
10-500kg
Pelycosaurs
Dimetrodon, tailback, carnivorous, herbivorous, sprawling limbs, long toes
Laurasia- warm, moist
Pelycosaur jaw
teeth mostly homodont except canine
first evidence of tooth differentiation
end of permian, mammals
most life dies, therapsids survive, diapsids take over, rise of large croc., mammals almost extinct from Jurassic, re-diversify KTB
Pelycosaur thermoregulation
elongated neural spines, heavily vascularized, thermoregulation, some of first modifications towards endothermy
homodont teeth
all the same
mammal lower jaw
1 bone - dentary
only bone with teeth
(3 bones including hinge)
mammal jaw hinge
articular (bottom) and quadrate (top)
Therapsids time
early Permian
Therapsid characteristics
very large temporal fenestra tooth differentiation palate development pelvic and pectoral girdles limbs thinner, joints more flexible short foot, toes limbs move for upright posture
almost all modern mammal teeth type
heterodont
Therapsid tooth differentiation
incisors
canines
post-canine
why arched palate?
breathe and eat
why short foot/toes?
running faster
importance of hind limb muscles in mammal development
movement of limbs without moving entire body side to side
muscles connected to iliac blade rather than lateral process
where therapsids diversified
Laurasia and Gondwana
cooler, less aquatic habitats
Therapsid size
rodent - cow
Dominant terrestrial tetrapods of the late Permian
Therapsids
Major Therapsid extinction end of Permian, 3 groups survive
dicynodonts
theriodonts
cynodonts
dicynodonts
herbivore, loss of molar teeth, horny sheath (like turtle), two tusks, derived jaw articulation- lateral movement for grinding
Theriodonts
dominant predator, coronoid process on dentary
coronoid process
a flattened triangular projection above the angle of the jaw where the temporalis muscle is attached– increased jaw closing strength
cynodonts
dog-sized carnivore, multicast molars, enlarged coronoid process
evolution of iliac process
evolution of running
fate of 3 remaining therapsid groups
displaced by diapsids in Tri, mostly extinct by end of Triassic
cynodont fate
progressive reduction in size, several small groups persist through K
persistent cynodonts
zygomatic arch, sculpted, heavily vascularized jaw, surface glands, enlarged infraorbital foramen, innervated face, turbinate bones, possible heterothermy or fully endothermic, 7 cervical vertebrae
infraorbital foramen
sensory nerves to brain (for innervated face)
innervated face
whiskers
turbinate bones
reabsorb water when exhale, present in almost all endotherms, important indicator
heterothermy
animals that exhibit characteristics of both poikilothermy and homeothermy
poikilotherm
organism whose internal temperature varies considerably. It is the opposite of a homeotherm, an organism which maintains thermal homeostasis
nocturnality
widespread amounts mammals, possibly ancestral behavioural pattern, appeared early in synapsid history (before mammals)
zygomatic arch
cheek bone, temporal bar arches behind the orbit, allow masseter muscle to attach to lower jaw
First True Mammal
Morganucodon, evolved from small bodied cynodont, late Triassic, ~10cm in light (small rat)
cynodont-mammal transition
locomotion
nearly complete separation of nasal passage from mouth
turbinate bones
hair (whiskers)
lactation
dentary-squamosal jaw hinge
anisognathus jaw, precise occlusion of molar teeth
lizard locomotion, breathing
lateral undulations, air flows side to side rather than in and out
mammal locomotion, breathing
bounding locomotion, dorsoventral flexion, facilitates exhalation/inhilation
facilitated dorsoventral flexion, mammal breathing while running
loss of lumbar ribs
why its hard to trace the origin of endothermy
attribute of the ‘soft anatomy’ which does not fossilize
soft anatomy of endothermy
complex lungs, elevated blood oxygen carrying capacity, mitochondrial density
fossilized parts of endothermy
nasal turbinates - may have evolved in association w/ origin of elevated ventilation rates
evolution of ‘mammalian’ oxygen consumption rates
Late Permian, 260mya
Therocephalia & Cynodontia, independently
how long for the full evolution of mammalian endotherm
40-50million years
muscles required for lactation
major facial muscles- generating a suction seal
when was transition from cynodont to true mammal
Cenosoic (probably Jurassic)
why did endotherms fall at the end of the paleozoic
oxygen crash
isognathus jaw
polyphyodont teeth
reptiles, early synapsids
anisognathus jaw
diphydont teeth
Cynodont, modern mammal
Poluphyodont
continuous tooth replacement
Diphydont
2 successive sets of teeth
milk teeth, and adult teeth with enamel
Cretaceous mammals
very small (shrew-rabbit size)
insectivore (from teeth)
3 major groups
Cretaceous mammal groups
Allotheria
Prototherian
Therians
Allotheria
Multituberculates rodent-like longest-lived mammalian group (100my) arboreal, fossorial (feet) complex, multicasted teeth - grinding possible early distinct branch of cynodont
Allotheria time
Jurassic - Eocene
longest lived mammalian group
Allotheria distribution
predominantly Laurasia (N)
Prototheria
monotremes
triangular teeth, extant, early branch of mammals, lay eggs, heterothermic, cervical ribs,
extant prototherians
duck-billed platypus, echidna
Australia & New Guinea
Prototheria distribution
Gondwana (S hemisphere, Australia, SA)
Therians
live birth, mammae, cochlea, external ear, tricuspid molars, major pectoral girdle modification
Types of therians
marsupials
placentals
mammae
a milk-secreting organ of female mammals
Tehran cochlea
> 2.5 coils
Therian pectoral girdle
for increased mobility
Metatherians
Marsupials - opossum, Tasmanian devil, koala, kangaroo
Marsupial characteristic
arboreal, omnivorous, heterothermy,
Marsupial birthing
give birth to altricial young– crawl into pouch– fuse to nipple
marsupial origin
oldest fossils found in NA
marsupial radiation
NA– Europe– Africa– SA in Cretaceous
Across Antarctica– Australia in Paleocene
Europe/Asia/Africa extinction of marsupials
mid-cenozoic
why NZ has no marsupials
separated from Australia before origin of early mammals (monotremes)
Placentals
Eutherians
Eutherian characteristics
relative to marsupials: longer gestation, reduced lactation, fewer incisors&premolars, strict endothermy
Eutherian endothermy
almost entirely, except torpor (which is technically heterothermy)
early Eutherians
arose in Asia, shrew-like, insectivorous, minor contribution to fossil record until KTB
major groups of Eutherians
edentates, insectivores, primates, rodents, chiroptera, carnivora, ungulates, cetaceans, sirenians, proboscideans
edentates
anteaters
sirenians
manatee
proboscideans
elephant
Earth in late mesozoic
forests on all continents
N latitudes warm and wet
broad leaved vegetation
mt range uplift
late mesozoic distributions
crocodiles in arctic
dinos, arboreal/fossorial mammals
rodentia in late Cretaceous
Carnivora early Palaeocene
orogeny
Rockies, Andes, Himalays in the late Mesozoic, ~100mya
largest group of mammals
Rodentia - 40% of all current mammal species
most of major modern groups appeared in
early Eocene
earths temperature in Eocene
warm, colder towards end
genus numbers in the Cenozoic
fairly stable across paleocene, eocene
increase across oligocene
drops in middle of miocene
genus numbers and paleotemperature in Cenozoic
rise in oligocene ~correlated with decreased T (ice house world), slight lag
marsupials
~200
opossum group -77
kangaroo, koala, wombat - 110
rodentia
1800
rabbits
~70
insectivora
~400
flying lemurs
4
chiroptera
1000
carnivora
274
cetacea
80
Artiodactyla
~200
artiodactyla
even toed- pigs, hippo, deer, cattle
perissodactyla
odd-toed - horse, rhino, tapir
results of orogeny
vast rainshadows, reduced T (hot house - ice house) = first grasslands (Miocene)
Miocene grasslands
diversification of grass-dwelling ungulates (horse, antelope, elephants)
start of Pleistocene
gradual cooling, formation of icecaps, major northern hemisphere glaciation
mammals and marsupials
parallel adaptive radiation
common species in each group, ecologically equivalent
burrower, anteater, mouse, climber, glider, cat, wolf… not sea animals
what happened after dinosaur extinction
niche space opened for large carnivores (mostly mammals, some large carnivorous birds)
when were NA and SA separrated
from Jurassic - Late Cainozoic (100my)
independent, separated diversification
Panamanian Isthmus
3my, connection between NA/SA
allow interchange of species
GAI
great american interchange
asymmetric interchange
immigrants into NA mostly did not persist
50% of SA immigrants persisted, displaced native species
why was GAI asymmetric
NH colder
North American Pleistocene fauna
persist throughout glaciation
at the time NA was as diverse as Serenghetti
some animals in NA pleistocene fauna
giant sloth, short faced bear, giant polar bear, california tapirs, peccaries, american lion, giant condor, american cheetah, sabre-toothed cats, dire wolves, gray wolf, camelids, llamas, bison, moose, ox, horses, mammoths
what happened to NA pleistocene fauna
impact event - extraterrestrial glass spheres
fell in to caves and mummified- karstography, constant humidity (no bacterial degradation)
La Brea Geology
Rancho La Brea tar pits (LA)
so much oil in ground- sealed to surface- rain sits on top, looks like pond
prey get captured, predators come and get trapped too
La Brea skeletons
59 mammal species
135 bird species
skeletons completely in tact, but never together
Pleistocene overkill
NA 100,000-12,000ya: 45genera over 40kg
10,000y -present: 12 genera
humans overkill?
overkill hypothesis
extinctions correspond well with first significant evidence of human presence. human colonization dominant driver of extinction over climate events. very certain of results.
Puma concolor
Cougar
cougar characteristics
45-80kg 3m nocturnal, solitary, ambush predator jump 6m vertical, 13m horizontally 50km/h largest back legs of any cat
cougar prey
> 95% - deer/elk
~1 per week
cougar density
4000 in Canada
3500 BC
1/200km^2
cougar vs. wolf
interaction common
both predator and prey
Cetacean length
Blue Whale 27m Sperm Whale 18m Humpback 15m Gary Whale 15m Orca 9m Bottle-Nose Dolphin 2.5m
Odontocetes
toothed whales smaller, fast moving single blowhole acoustic chase prey
Killer Whale
Orcinus orca Delphinids (dolphin) 3 types female dominated social structure tell apart by prey, dorsal fin, saddle patch, calls
Orca groups
resident
Bigg’s (transient) - mammal eater
offshore - shark eater
Pacific white-sided dolphin
Lagenirhynchus obliquidens Delphinids often in groups inshore and offshore ~7.5ft , gregarious, showy
Harbour porpoise
Phocoena phocoena
Elusive, small group, acoustically sensitive, hybridize, ultrasonic frequency- one of highest frequencies of all mammal
Dall’s porpoise
Phocoendoides dalli
Fastest cetacean in BC
often confused with orca
bow rider, hybridize, ‘friendly’, swim 55km/hr, splash
Sperm whale
Physter macrocephalous
past shelf break, don’t see often here, 1/3 body mass is head - sonar, echo location, fish in complete darkness
sperm whale length of time under water
up to 1hr
60min under water = 60 blows
BC Odontocetes
Orcas, Pacific white-sided dolphin, Harbour porpoise, Dall’s porpoise, Sperm Whale
Mysticetes
baleen whales larger bodies two nostrils form blow hole "moustached whale" engulf prey
how to find patchy prey
get big, move efficiently through water – bigger = bigger mouth = more efficient
Humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae
dorsal fin rests on hump
often solitary, migrator, acrobatic, primarily small fish feeders, fall anchovata populations
Gray Whale
Eschrichtius robustes
solitary, population recovering from whaling, benthic feeder
Minke whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
elusive, solitary, smallest baleen, common, sporadic, generally small fish feeder, can fall prey to orca
Fin whale
Balaenoptera physalus
commonly in offshore waters of N BC, second largest of all whales, density unknown, heavily whaled, very fast, ID by right lower lip
Sei whale
Balaenoptera borealis
big target for whaling, drive herring, small fish feeder
Blue whale
Balaenoptera musculus
150 tonnes, population significantly reduced, largest animal on earth (possibly ever), not well known, not easily studied, driven off by sonar
North Pacific right whale
Eubalaena japonica
huge baleen - up to 15ft, heavily whaled for baleen, copepod feeder
Pinnipedds
limbs resemble terrestrial animals, blubber and hair, tactile, vocal
Stellars Sealion, California sea lion, Harbour seals, Sea otter, River otter, Northern fur seal, Northern elephant seal
Mysticetes
Humpback whale, Gray whale, Minke whale, Fin whale, Sei whale, Blue whale, North Pacific right whale
Pinniped acoustics
Adjusted for under and above water hearing
Stellar’s Sealion
Eumetopias jubatus
spp. moterirnsis (Laughlin’s), haulout, mate at rookeries, sexually dimorphic m»f, roar, can rotate hind quarters to pull themselves up (unlike seals)
California sea lion
Zalophus californianus
Bark, sexual dimorphic, polygamous, dog-like face, crest on front of head @ sexual maturity
Harbour Seals
Phoca vitulina richardsi
common, ‘true’/earless seal, rarely fight, eyes change shape for in/out water, territorial, don’t like to touch each other
Sea otter
Ehydra lutris
Heaviest weasel, smallest marine mammal, fur not blubber, rarely leave water, dive deep for food, backwards feet
River otter
Lontra canadensis
versatile on land/water, den builder, latrine sites,
thickest/most dense hair of all mammals
sea otter
traps air
Northern fur seal
Callorhinus ursinus
rare here, up to 7ft, ‘true’ seal, f live 3X males
Northern elephant seal
Mirounga angustirostgis
‘trunk’ in male, f
Cetacean live capture
endangered southern residents for zoo/marine park
primary destabilization
over capture of almost all marine organisms
Cetacean tourism
whale watching, marine parks, aquariums
effects of acoustics not well known
Cetacean entanglement
follow prey into traps, derelict fishing gear
Cetacean pollution
lipophilic chemicals stick to blubber- especially calves
persistence (pollution)
affects duration in environment after release
volatility (pollution)
affects transport in atmosphere
water solubility (pollution)
affects transport in rivers, runoff, ocean currents
bioaccumulation potential (pollution)
affects concentrations at higher trophic levels
Cetaceans, climate change
reduced arctic sea ice- move into foraging area sooner– larger more robust offspring
CO2 emissions, acidification, implications for cetaceans not well known
Cetaceans, vessel traffic
major increase- strikes, noise
behavioural changes, auditory disturbance, interactions
go through ‘best whale routes’
ocean noises (Hz)
seismic 1-100
ship traffic 10-1kHz
bubbles/spray 100-100kHz
ocean hearing (Hz)
seals/sea lions-100-100kHz
Baleen whale- 10-10kHz
Dolphin- 100-100
Porpoise- 1kHz-100kHz
hydophone
set up to listen to whale migration
400lb anchor chain
acoustic release
deployed hyrdophone
AMAR
Autonomous Multichannel Acoustic Recorder
AMAR deployment
February & May 2015
64&133 days recording
~50&20m water depth
Flores island (feeding ground)
grey whale migration
S (breeding) - N (feeding)
considerations with AMAR
can’t be too close to shore (wave noise)
acoustic release system/ pop-up
‘call’ the pop-up and the ‘egg’ separates and reals the line back in
ocean glider movement
ballast- changing weight, takes on water to sink
winter population estimate of cougars in southeastern BC
3.5 cougars/100km^2
average home range of male cougar in southeastern BC
151km^2
Current cougar populations
declining
increased conflicts btw cougars/humans
92% of mortalities in collared cougars from hunting
average survival rate 59%
cougar reproduction stat
average litter 2.53
inter birth interval 18mnth
75% of females reproductively successful
Canada Lynx
Lynx canadensis
nocturnal, solitary, ambush, pursuit, mostly canadian shield area (prevalent hare), hunted for pelt
Lynx prey
snowshoe hare, rodents, birds
cougar unique pelage
unique that it is always the same across wide range of habitats
cougar physiological jumping mechanisms
disproportionately large pelvic apparatus for leaping (frog-like)
BC Canidae
Grey Wolf
Coyote
Red Fox
Wolf paw
middle pads > outside pads
dogs opposite
Canada phylogeny
(Dog - Grey wolf) - coyote
sister groups
red fox far separated
Canis lupus
Grey wolf
packs, territorial, numerous vocalizations, formerly one of worlds most widely distributed mammals
Grey wolf pack
mated pair, juveniles&yearlings
Grey wolf territorial
scent marking, fights, death, 1/3 of natural mortality
grey wolf reproductive
adults suppress reproductive attempts in family, 60 day incubation, 6 pups at birth, pups 400g, blind 10 days, suckling 3 weeks, remain in pack up to 4years, parents regurgitate food
coastal rainforest wolves
taller, dark (brown like deer, don’t run in packs
Canis latrans
Coyote
explicitly NA, not on coast
BC Ursidae
Brown bear/Grizzly bear
Black bear
Ursidae phylogeny
{ [(brown- polar) -(asiatic black- american black) - sun bear - sloth bear ] - spectacled bear } Giant Panda
Ursidae sister group
Procyonidae (Raccoon, Lesser Panda)
Brown/Grizzly bear
Ursus arctos summer-alpine spring/summer-estuaries autumn- salmon predator - wolves predatory, scavenger, omnivore
Black bear
Ursus americanus majorly forest habitat autumn-salmon predator- grizzly, wolves predatory, scavenger, omnivore
Ursidae distribution
Ursus arctos- across N hemisphere
Ursus americanus- only NA
black bear, winter
den in high elevation caves, low elevation large tress (avoid grizzly’s), if no grizzly den anywhere (VI)
distinct grizzly group
ABC bear, off coast of Alaska, N of HG. On islands: Admiralty, Baronof, and Chichagof
unique genetic structure, relates them to brown & polar bear
polymorphic pelage/plumage
occurrence of 2 or more discontinuous colour morphs (genotypes) w/i a pop.
rarest cannot be maintained by mutation alone
polymorphic colouration does not apply to
ontogenetic variation (ex. deer, spots-brown) seasonal variation (ex.arctic hare)
Considerations in polymorphic colouration
heritability frequency of morphs geographical distribution sex-linked? ecologically functional/nuetral historical genetic linkage/pleiotropy advantages/disadvantages
reindeer polymorphism
lighter - more warble flies, decrease body mass
colour variation > in semi-domesticated, less impacted by parasitism (treatment)
white horses
high sensitivity to UV radiation, frequent skin cancer, predation risk
blood-sucking tabard flies less attracted to white horses (polarized light)
contrasting ecological pressure
spirit bear
Ursus americanus kermodei
Kermode bear
coastal black bears
known >100years
Kermode through time
1906- $30 for a head
1912- thought almost extinct, 25 specimens known, $250 reward for live specimen
1924- prize/tourist attraction in beacon hill park
frequency of white polymorphism
Gribbell - 25% (1/4)
Princess Royal - 10%
Mainland - less than 1%
black bear species inland
Ursus americanus americanus
kermode bear polymorph gene
same gene that produces white phases in mice, horses, etc. common gene mutation that knocks out melanin
mutation at melanocortin 1 receptor gene
colour combinations, kermode
every mother-cub colour combination found, random mating structure - no sexual colour preference
Kermode, glacial relict
colour beneficial during glaciation (as it is in polar bears), left over from then
Kermode, glacial relict, still beneficial?
not found in high latitudes
no benefit in this way
Dr. Blood :(
black bear has few natural enemies, largely a vegetarian, logging/land use are fine
neutral mutations
in isolated populations can remain by default/chance
Kermode, neutral mutation
there is new gene inputs (swim overs from mainland), phenotype % remains ~constant over 10,000yrs, neutral alleles almost always dropped in small populations (doesn’t seem to be neutral)
neutral alleles, drosophola
low population = low heterozygosity = almost always single genotype
why chance mutations are higher in small population
inbreeding, bottlenecks, small number of breeders, disproportional contributions
over dominance in fitness
heterozygote > fitness than homozygote
hetero. often have better immunological
hetero. maintained b/c of beneficial condition
over dominance in fitness also called
heterozygote advantage
If a polymorphism is controlled by heterozygote advantage would expect to see
excess of heterozygotes
Kermode and heterozygote advantage
cannot be the case b/c there is a deficiency of heterozygotes
Kermode bear, assortative mating
WW, BB
disproven by the cub combinations, would have lead to loss of uncommon morph
Mainland geneflow retaining white allele?
gene flow is extremely dominantly black allele, mainly is more than 90% B, would reduce white gene frequency
Multi-niche polymorphism
2+ morphs occupy different niche space
different phenotypes have greater fitness for different niche type
Multi-niche polymorphism, why?
Day/night?
behavioural interaction- dominant/submissive?
foraging technique?
salmon capture success?
trophic differences-stable isotope analysis?
Black bear diel activity pattern
lowest in the mid afternoon, can’t see well at low light, mainly only coast black bears hunt nocturnally
polymorphs forage at same time of day
Black/white kermode behavioural interaction
in ~400 interactions found black bears dominate encounter in dark (small n), and no dominance in day, overall dominance was more related to body size than colour
black vs white foraging skill, kermode
white bear is a more stationary forager, stand and wait technique
black bear walks and runs
difference in foraging technique
black vs. white salmon capture efficiency
dark- black slight advantage
light- white significant advantage (stand, walk, AND run!) major daylight advantage
stable isotope analysis of kermode bear hair on Gribbell Isl
Spring, Summer ~same 15N
Fall- white much higher 15N
Why white bear has slightly higher 15N signature in spring/summer
feeding on barnacles
isotope analysis conclusion
WB salmon specialist
Fall- feed almost entirely on salmon
Isotope analysis, Princess Royal
WB/BB ~same 15N
more variation in individuals than on Gribbell
marine isotope signature
high 13carbon and 15nitrogen
white bear allele frequency
Gribbell 56%
PR 33%
Mainland 0-20%
white bear population estimate
Gribbell 8-15 (40-50bears)
PR 10-40 (200bears)
why WB allele higher on Gribbell
almost fully segregate niche space, higher proportion of white bears increases the populations speciality and take over niche
why WB allele lower on PR
larger niche space = more competition, constraints
evasiveness of salmon to simulated predator
dark - no difference
light - fewer salmon return than at night, ~2X as many return to white ‘bear’
why are salmon less evasive to white bear
Snell’s window, refraction
Snell’s window
underwater viewer sees everything above surface through a cone of width of ~96º, area outside window either completely dark or a reflection of underwater objects
Gribble island salmon biomass
~300kg/yr (salmon ~2kg)
1 bear requires ~300-500 salmon
where there is grizzly bear
black bears don’t eat salmon, white bear won’t persist if grizzly invade their islands
polymorphism as ‘super gene’
often groups of genes working together
Artiodactyla
even-toed ungulates
Elk, Mt goat, Bighorn, Deer, Moose, Caribou
BC Elk
2 species- Roosevelt, Rocky Mountain
formerly most widely distributed ungulate
population collapse from human predation
Roosevelt Elk
Mostly E side of province, some on N VI
now live in second growth, not original habitat
extinct across much of previous range
Mountain Goat
adapted for steep terrain, snow cover 2nd longest hair shaft length of ungulates birth on steep cliffs low predation no colour phases
Mountain goat predation
golden eagle
Mountain goats travel to
salt licks, up to 9 visits/yr, up to 17km away
areas not included in protection zone, resource development difficulty
Bighorn Sheep
highly diverse habitat (slopes-deserts), mainly treeless areas, limited in BC, mostly SE corner of province
Resource separation by fire
burning modifies ecosystem- attracts ungulates- changes animal distribution
elk populations moving in to traditional range of other grazing species (Sheep)
Mule/Black-tailed deer distribution
most of BC except NW corner, high on islands
White-tailed deer distribution
only on E side of BC
Tell Mule/black-tailed and white-tailed apart
white-tail: tip of tail is white, white bum only visible if tail lifted, antler prongs come off of main beam
Mule deer: dark tipped tail, antlers fork
Moose distribution
right across circumboreal
never coastal in the past, moving in now, likely due to prey
In Europe Moose are
Elk
Woodland Caribou
Rangifer tarandus
same species as reindeer in Europe
a little farther N in range than Moose
keystone species
Reduction in Caribou population
~70% reduction in high-quality habitat, not only cause of decline, multifactorial
Criminal Code of Canada, Animal Cruelty
Every one commits an offence who willfully causes or, being the owner, willfully permits to be caused unnecessary pain, suffering, or injury to an animal or a bird
Criminal Code of Canada, Animal Cruelty punishment
indictable offence, liable to imprisonment of 5 years, or fine of up to $10,000
Maintaining Ethical Standards during Conservation Crises
first example of scientists using criminal code to evaluate scientific work (and put their necks on the line), journal of wolf cull study (CJZ) would not publish
cost of removing BC wolves
180 wolves - $2 million (helicopter cost)
VI Marmot past distribution
only alpine, males travel all the way down and up to other side for reproduction, dangerous travelling through forest, high predation, low survival
VI Marmot population
last ~40 years- population plummeted
deforestation allows corridors for predators
VI Marmot reintroduction
Artificial reproduction in Toronto Zoo, reintroduce on VI, very successful
2003- 70 adults, 1 litter born in wild
VI marmot status
critically endangered
BC Marmots
hoary, olympic, VI
distinct skulls, unknown if they can interbreed
BC Marmot phylogeny
flaviventris (yellow-bellied) is outgroup, olympus sister group to vancouverensis
BC Bat species
16 species
White-nose syndrome
major bat die off in E NA
expanding Westerly
not yet in BC
Keen’s Myotis
little brown bat, red-listed, unusual, poorly known, distinct, no breeding colonies known until found among heated rocks
Oscines orca found
all oceans, most common within 200km of shoreline
Orca size
f- 8m
m- 10m
orca pod
family stays together, form a pod of different matrilines, related pods form a clan with similar vocal dialect
matriline
line of descent from female ancestor to descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals in all intervening generations are mothers – in other words, a “mother line”
ID’ing orca
Dorsal fin, saddle patch distinctive among individuals, determine demography from photo
demography
science of populations to understand population dynamics investigate: birth, migration, and aging
Study Orca demography, M. Bigg
construct life table w/ decades of photos, first use of procedure, found ages 2-3X greater than though
implications of Orca demography study
assumed ages/generation times used to determine quota of IWC, resulted in curtailment of Russian orca harvest in antarctica
IWC
International Whaling Commission
HWR
height to width ratio of dorsal fin
proxy for age
Orca ages
peak 20-30years
data up to ~90years
past thought peak 10yrs, max 30yrs
orca genetic diversity
low, suspected pleistocene bottleneck 170,000ybp, diversification prior to last glacial advance 30,000ybp, common ancestor 700,000ya
most genetically distinct orca
transient, separated first
resident orca prey
fish eaters, specialists for Chinook, survival highly correlated w/ chinook survival, limiting factor of population dynamics (even though they consume other fish)
limited in ability to adapt
orca travel distance
~100km/day while in one area
~160km/day when travelling, ~5,500 km/month
length of VI
Length: 460km (3 days by whale)
Width: 100km
coastline length: 3,400km (20 days by whale)
BC forestry economics
$6.6 billion/yr direct revenue ministry- 15.6billion/yr 2.5% of gov't revenue 6.3% of BC jobs 18,000 direct jobs
BC ecotourism economics
$13.8 billion/yr
132,000 direct jobs
forests succesions
bare ground– primary succession– pioneer seral stage– seral stages– secondary succession– climax
forestry and successions
takes climax forest, sends it back in seral stages
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, Ogota Japan
16 resident whales whale watching $3mil/y life span 30 yrs $60mill in 20yrs whaling $4.3mill for 16 15:1 in favour of whale watching
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, South Africa
wildlife tourism $6bil/y
trophy huntin $2.1 mil/yr
3000:1 in favour of wildlife viewing
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, Palau
100 sharks
scuba $18mil/yr
fishing for fin/meat $10,000/y
1800:1 for tourism
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, BC bear hunt
Total GDP contribution Bear viewing $9.5mil
Bear hunting $669,000
15:1 in favour of tourism
BC bear population estimate
2004 - 17,000
2008- 16,000
2012- 15,000
GBR
great bear rainforest
MRL
maximum recorded longevity (captivity)
small song bird MRL
less than 2yr in wild but 20yr in captivity
large song bird MRL
10yr in wild, 28 in captivity
gulls, ravens MRL
~60-70yr (captivity)
owl, parrot MRL
100yr (captivity)
max age of birds
~2X greater in captivity than wild
probability of yearly mortality, adult bird
~50%
Senescence
loss of DNA repair, accumulation of mutations, build up anti-oxidant enzymes, increased free radicals, loss of homeostasis, altered gene expression
mammal MRL
mouse - 4yr toad - 20yr cat 20-40yr dog 10-30yr horse 50-60yr elephant 80-90yr humpback whale ~50yr tortoise - potentially over 100
log max longevity vs. log body mass
log longevity linearly increasing with log body mass
large animals live longer
log max longevity vs. log body mass, bird, mammal
bird higher and steeper sloped
birds ~1.7X MRL of mammals of equal mass
yet bird BMR 3X mammals
why large spread in MRL
function of extrinsic processes high probability of mortality in first years = early reproduction, r-selection, make offspring at expense of maintaining body
If species has high probability of evading predators in early life
natural selection favour development of defences and subsequently improved physiological repair abilities; long-lasting immune system, anti-aging/anti-radical defence
example of high probability of evading predators
spikes, hard shell, flight, apex predator, large
animals with high mortality in early life
small, soft body
biomechanics for longer life
superoxide-mutase (anti-oxidant enzyme)
tissue tolerance to chemical stress
cellular longevity
naked mole rat
subterranean, extraordinarily long lived, size of mouse, greater than 30yr, longest living rodent, negligible senescence, no age related mortality rate, resistant to cancer, live in full darkness w/ a queen, low O2, high CO2, poikilothermy, hairless
Proteus
human fish, olm
blind salamander, limestone caves, no pigment, no eyes, no predators, extreme lifespan over 100yrs
Caenorhabditis elegans, spaceflight
suppressed aging, inactivated genes that extended on ground lifespans, aging slowed through neuronal and endocrine response to space enviro. cues
down regulating genes that control these peptides led to longer lifespan, elagans, earthworm
acetylcholine receptor acetylcholine transporter choline acetyltransferase rhodopsin-like receptor glutamate-gated chloride channel potassium channel insulin-like peptide
Estimating age in long-lived tetrapods
yearly growth rings photo-id or mark/release fatty acid ratio racemization epigenetic marker
yearly growth rings in tetrapods
teeth, eye lens, ear bones, ear plugs
chiral molecules
molecules existing in two forms, mirror images, rotate polarized light left or right, occur in equal proportion in meteorites
Ratio of D/L =1
biological tissue chiral molecules
use only left (levorotatory) amino acids (L-amino) D/L = 0
right (dextrorotatory) glucose (D-glucose) D/L =1
L/D enantiomers
completely different function/response
racemization
one enantiomer such as L-amino acid, converts to the other enantiomer. The compound alternates between each form while the ratio approaches 1:1, (racemic mixture)
racemization in animal
L-amino acid incorporated into bone– racemization– accumulate D-enantiomer until racemic mix reached. can be used for dating
racemization of living narwhale
L-aspartic acid to D-aspartic acid in nucleus of eye lense
DNA methylation
epigenetic mechanism used by cells to control gene expression; signaling tool that can fix genes in the “off” position
DNA methylation aging
predicts age from skin samples, can be applied to non model wild organisms
Nunatak
glacial island
exposed, often rocky element of a ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at the edge of) an ice field or glacier.
Ice sheets ~180,000ya
Laurentide
Cordilleran
Beringia
northern glaciation refugia
past glaciation/refugia theory
18,000ya northern&southern refugee, 13-10000ya cordilleran ice sheet melts and colonization occurs from S
implication of past glaciation theory
all species (plant/animals) in BC have colonized in last 10,000yrs, mostly from S
relictual species
remnant ecosystems, species persisting through glaciation
evidence for relictual species
disjunct distribution
unique species/subspecies
relictual species, unique species
VI marmot, Nebria, dawson’s caribou, stickleback, unique black bear subspecies
BC black bear phylogeny
2 deeply separated lineages, continental and coastal
endemism
species being unique to a defined geographic location
haplotype
a set of DNA variations/ polymorphisms, that tend to be inherited together: combination of alleles or set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on same chromosome
BC wolves
coastal (sea wolves) differ from continental
other animals with distinct coastal/continental subspecies
Marten, short-tailed weasel, dawson’s caribou (extinct 1915), marmot, brown bear
coastal/continental lineages suggest
some type of coastal refugia, otherwise would expect one lineage after glacial (everything would have been wiped out)
relic grizzlies
restricted to 3 small islands, dwarfed size, closest relative to polar bear, “ABC” bear
landbird relics
estimated divergence dates 20-120,000ybp, suggest HG area was forested refugium in late Pleistocene
port Eliza cave evidence
laminated clays, diverse vertebrate fauna, aging shows brief ice cover (15.5-14ka), sea level close to cave, salmon runs, cool, open parkland, cool temperatures
K1 cave, Queen Charlottes
skeletons dated to 14,000ya, very close to glacial max, must have been an open space for large animals
sea level, 14000ya
150m below present
dates artifacts = humans by 10,000ya, migration route, most likely refugia
Exotic tetrapods in BC
Green frog, bull frog, european grey partridge, californai quail, domestic pigeon, european starling, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant, wild turkey, virginia opossum, european rabbit,e astern cottontail rabbit, eastern Gray squirrel, rats, house mouse, amerindians, europeans
Aliens, Green frog
from NE US, introduced before 1940
Alines, bull frog
probably from Washington, non intentional, huge impact, high predatory and competitive pressure, carrier of Chytrid fungus
european grey partridge
introduced in 1870 for hunting, now widespread
California Quail
introduced 1860, common on VI
Domestic pigeon
from Europe to E Canada 1600, now widespread in urban
European Starling
from Europe 1910, BC in 1947, widespread in urban
house sparrow
from Europe 1850, BC 1890, widespread rural and urban
ring-necked pheasant
from asia, 1890, widespread
wild turkey
from US, 1960s, locally abundant
equilibrium niche space
none empty. if non-natives invade, it is at the expense of others
European rabbit
released, 1910
Eastern cottontail
natural from washington
eastern gray squirrel
introduced to stanley park 1915
rats
from europe on ships 1800-1900 (woodrat is native)
house mouse
from europe, 1800
Amerindians
12,000yrs marginal impacts apart from sea otter extirpation
europeans
‘introduced’ 1775, greatest impact of all species
impacts of exotics
new parasites, greatest density in disturbed habitat, major impacts in natural land adjacent to disturbed habitat
disturbed habitats
urban, roadside, rural properties, agriculture, predator-free zone
Introduced Canada geese
intentionally cross-bred in 60’s to establish breeding population for harvest, spread exotic grasses (feces), decline native plant species abundance
Scott islands
largest aggregation of breeding seabirds in E Pacific ocean south of Alaska
changes to scott islands, aliens
large decline in seabird population due to american mink, raccoon (European rabbit also present but not found to have effect)
Cassin’s Auklet, scott islands
Triangle island, Sartine island, bulk of worlds breeding population of Cassins auklet, selects grass-covered habitat, vegetation changes on these islands reduces reproductive success
Haida Gwaii, native vs alien plant species
native ~500
exotic ~140
143/657 = 22%
Haida Gwaii, native/nonnative mammals
native 12
introduced 14
14/26 = 54%
introduced mammals, haida gwaii
norway rat, raccoon, mink, muskrat, beaver, red squirrel, sitka deer, elk, feral cat, pheasant, tree frog, red-legged frog
non-native feedback
introduced plants bring in alien insects bring in higher trophic level aliens…
rats and seabirds, Queen Charlottes
seabird colony decline, predation from rats invade burrow-nests, especially ancient Murrelet, present on 18islands, Norway rat replaced black rat on Langara
Nestucca oil spill
December 23, 1988
Greys harbour washington, barge cable broke, tug backs into and punctures barge, release 231,000 gallons fuel oil, oil covers 100km WAS, over 200km VI, 56,000 bird deaths known, $5million fine
warfarin
sweet-clover, oral anticoagulant, inhibits Vit K formation, hemorrhaging, highly toxic, major global pesticide, odourless, tasteless, 100% mortality, slow death multiple days, internal bleeding and trauma, LD50 1mg/kg/day
second-generation super-warfarin
brodifacoum LD50 0.3mg/kg/day human death with less than 1% sugarcane mass long lasting, 6months worldwide rodenticide
eradicating rats, langara island, 1995
bate station: pipe with internal shelf, bated with brodifacoum, every 75-100m in concentric circles
funds: Nestucca oil spill settlement
technique: NZ study
duration: 2years
success, 10’s of thousands of rats killed, seabirds back on the rise
adverse effect of eradicating rats on Langara
common raven greater than 50% mortality, risks of secondary poisoning, 15% of bald eagles blood tests showed detectable residue but no adverse affects found
racoon
formerly absent on HG, mainland and VI introduced 1940 no predators significant ooivore of ground nesters more opportunistic than rats, very successful, swimmers- difficult to remove
Sitka deer, HG
1878- 8 introduce 1911- 28 released 1925- 3 released 2005- 150,000 low predation, no predator, no competitor exponential population growth
Deer-vegetation interaction
browse line = height of animal, yearly growth very small below browse line, can’t get large, bush like shape on bottom
dendrochronology
tree-ring dating
Moresby Island dendrochronology
ring width shows large convergence after 1990
tree defence
anti-browsers, monoterpene, volatile, physiologically costly, unnecessary without predator, attract wasps (predator of insects)
monoterpenes and browsing
lower in heavily browsed trees
bitter
deer and understory invertebrates
deer-free – 20yrs of deer – 50years of deer
significant decrease in abundance and species numbers of inverts (because of decreased vegetation diversity)
deer and pollinators
deer-free–20yr–50yr
sig. decrease, no bumblebee on islands with deer greater than 50yr!
expected insects and pollinators on islands without deer
would expect highest numbers and diversity because they are the islands closest to the source land
deer and parasitoid insects
same pattern.. low plants, low insects with lots of deer (same pattern with songbirds as well)
deer impact pathway aboveground
deer browsing- change veg. - reduce understory abundance/diversity- fewer herbivores, pollinators - fewer predators, parasites
deer impact pathway on ground
browsing- change veg. - reduce litter and dry soil - fewer detritivorous inverts. - fewer predators
Songbirds use of shrubs
fruits
nectar
nest sites
insects
deer and songbirds
abundance in areas with deer more than 50yrs had 55-70% lower songbirds, deer overabundance may explain part of current continental-scale decrease in songbird populations
Louise Island
kill deer and monitor island, microsatellite marker genetics determine source population, find ~1/generation (2yrs) were migrating (swimming) from source land, eradication would have to be an ongoing event
Red squirrel introduction
for helping pick highly prized sitka spruce cones, when no cones left for squirrels they become ooivores and can sniff out the nest
avian dispersal of exotic shrubs
fruit, feces, higher palatability = higher dispersal, protection from humans insufficient to prevent exotic species establishment and loss of native biodiversity
