BIO 330 Flashcards
1
Q
sampling error imposes
A
imprecision (accuracy intact)
caused by chance
2
Q
sampling bias imposes
A
inaccuracy (precision intact)
3
Q
accurate sample
A
unbiased
4
Q
precise sample
A
low sampling error
5
Q
good sample
A
accurate
precise
random
large
6
Q
2 types of data
A
numerical
categorical
7
Q
numerical data
A
continuous
discrete
8
Q
categorical data
A
nominal
ordinal
9
Q
types of variable
A
response
explanatory
10
Q
response variable
A
dependent
outcome
Y
11
Q
explanatory variable
A
independent
predictor
x
12
Q
subsamples treated as true replicate
A
pseudoreplication
13
Q
subsamples are useful for
A
increasing precision of estimate for individual samples (multiple samples from same site averaged)
14
Q
contingency table
A
explanatory- columns
response- rows
totals of columns and rows
15
Q
2 data descriptions
A
central tendency
width
16
Q
central tendency
A
mean
median
mode
17
Q
width (spread)
A
range standard deviation variance coefficient of variation IQR
18
Q
effect of outliers on mean
A
shifts mean towards outliers- sensitive to extremes
median doesn’t shift
19
Q
sample variance s^2 =
A
sum( Y_i - Ybar )^2 / n-1
20
Q
coefficient of variation CV =
A
100% ( s / Ybar )
21
Q
high CV
A
more variability
22
Q
skewed box plot
A
left skewed- more data in ‘bottom’- first quartile
right skewed- more data in ‘top’- 3rd quartile
23
Q
when/why random sample
A
uniform study area
removes bias in sample selection
24
Q
when/why systematic sample
A
detect patterns along gradient- fixed intervals along transect/belt
25
using quadrats
more better
| stop when mean/variance stabilize (asymptote)
26
what does changing n do to sampling distribution
reduces spread (narrows graph) - increases preciesion
27
standard error of estimate SE_Ybar =
s / sqr rt (n)
28
SD vs. SE
SD- spread of distribution/deviation from mean
| SE- precisions of an estimate (ex. mean)
29
95% CI ~=
+/- 2SE
30
kurtosis
leptokurtic- sharper peak (+)
platykurtic- rounder peak (-)
mesokurtic- normal (0)
31
Normal distribution, 1SD
~2/3 of the area under the curve (2SD = 95%)
32
random trial
process/experiment with ≥2 possible outcomes who occurrence can not be predicted
33
sample space
all possible outcomes
34
event
any subset of the sample space (≥1 outcome)
35
mutually exclusive events
P[A and B] = 0
36
mutually exclusive addition rule
P[7U11] = P[7} + P[11]
37
general addition rule
P[AUB] = P[A] + P[B] - P[A and B]
38
multiplication rule
independent events
| P[A and B] = P[A] x P[B]
39
conditional probability
P[A I B] = P[A and B] / P[B]
40
collection of individual easily available to researcher
sample of convenience
41
random sample
ever unit has equal opportunity, selection of unit independent, minimizes bias, possible to measure sampling error
42
problem with sample of convenience
assume unbiased/independent- no guarantee
43
volunteer bias
health conscious, low income, ill, more time, angry, less prudish
44
frequency distribution
describes # of times each value of a variable occurs in sample
45
probability distribution
distribution of variable in whole population
46
absolute frequency
of times value is observed
47
relative frequency
proportion of individuals which have that value
48
experimental studies can
determine cause and effect
| *cause
49
observational studies can
only point to cause
| *correlations
50
quantifying precision
smaller range of values (spread)
51
determining accuracy
usually can't- don't know true value
52
nominal categorical data with 2 choices
binomial
53
why aim for numerical data
it can be converted to categorical if need be
54
species richness
discrete (count)
55
rates
continuous
56
large sample
less effected by chance
lower sampling error
lower bias
57
rounding
round to one decimal place more than measurement (in calculations)
58
higher CV
more variability
59
proportions
p^ = # of observations in category of interest/ total # of observations in all categories
60
sum of squares
it is squared so that each value is +, so they don't cancel each other out
n-1 to account for population bias
61
CV used for
relative measures- comparing data sets
62
sampling distribution
probability distribution of all values for an estimate that we might obtain when we sample a population, centred at true µ
63
values outside of CI
implausible
64
how many quadrats to use
till cumulative number of observations asymptotes
65
law of total probability
P[A] = Σ P[B].P[A I B]
| for all B_i 's
66
null distribution
sampling distribution for test statistic, if repeated trials many time and graphed test statistics for H_o
67
Type I error
P[Reject Ho I Ho true] = alpha
68
reject null
P-vale < alpha
69
Type II error
P[do not reject Ho I Ho false]
70
Power
P[Reject Ho I Ho false]
increases with large n
decreases P[Type II E]
71
test statistic
used to evaluate whether data are reasonably expected under Ho
72
p-value
probability of getting data as extreme or more, given Ho is true
73
statistically significant
data differ from H_o
| not necessarily important- depends on magnitude of difference and n
74
why not reduce alpha
would decrease P[Type I] but increase P[Type II]
75
continuous probability
| P[Y = y] =
0
76
sampling without replacement
ex. drawing cards
| 1/52).(1/51).(1/50
77
Bayes Theorem
P[A I B] = ΣP[B I A].P[A] / P[B]
78
P-value > alpha
do not reject Ho
| data are consistent with Ho
79
meaning of 'z' in standardization
how many sd's Y is from µ
80
standardization for sample mean, t =
Ybar - µ / (s / sq.rt. n)
81
CI on µ
Ybar ± SE.tcrit
SE of Ybar
t of alpha(1 or 2), degrees of freedom
82
1 sample t-test
compares sample mean from normal pop. to population µ proposed by Ho
83
why n-1 account for sampling error
last value is not free to vary if mean is a specified value
84
1 sample t-test assumptions
data are a random sample
| variable is normally distributed in pop.
85
paired t-test assumptions
pairs are a random sample from pop.
| paired differences are normally distributed in the pop.
86
how to tell whether to reject with t-test
if test statistic is further into tails than critical t then reject
87
2 sample design compares
treatment vs. control
88
2 sample t-test assumptions
both samples are random samples
variable is normally distributed in each group
standard deviation in two groups ± equal
89
degrees of freedom
1 sample t-test: n - 1
paired t-test: n - 1
2 sample t-test: n1 + n2 - 2
90
confounding variables
mask/distort causal relationships btw measured variables
problem w/ observational studies
impossible to differentiate 1 variable
91
experimental artifacts
bias resulting from experiment, unnatural conditions
problem w/ experimental studies
should try to mimic natural environment
92
minimum study design requirements
knowledge of initial/natural conditions via preliminary data to ID hypotheses and confounding variables
controls to reduce bias
replication to reduce sampling error
93
study design process
develop clear statement of research question
list possible outcomes
develop experimental plan
check for design problems
94
developing a clear statement of research question
ID question, Ho, Ha
choose factors, response variable
what is being testes? will the experiment actually test this?
95
list possible outcome of experiment
ID sample space
explain how each outcome supports/refutes Ho
consider external risk factors
96
develop experimental plan
| based on step 1
outline different experimental designs
| check literature for existing/accepted designs
97
develop experimental plan based on step 2
what kind of data will you have- aim for numerical
| what type of statistical test will you use
98
minimize bias in experimental plan
control group
randomization
blinding
99
minimize sampling error in experimental plan
replication
balance
blocking
100
types of controls
positive
| negative
101
positive control
treatment that should produce obvious, strong effect
| ensuring experiment design doesn't block effect
102
negative control
subjects go through all same steps but do not receive treatment- no effect
103
maintaining power with controls
add controls w/o reducing sample size- too many controls samples using up resources will reduce power
104
placebo effect
improvement in condition from psychological effect
105
randomization
breaks correlation btw explanatory variable and confounding variables (averages effects of confounding variables)
106
blinding
conceals from subjects/researchers which treatment was received
prevent conscious/unconscious changes in behaviour
single blind or double blind
107
better chance of IDing treatment effect if
sample error/noise is minimized
108
replication =
smaller SE, tighter CI
109
spacial autocorrelation
```
each sample is correlated w/ sample area
not independent (unless testing differences in that population)
```
110
temporal autocorrelation
measurement at one pt in time is directly correlated w/ the one before/after it
111
balance =
small SE, narrow CI
112
blocking
accounts for extraneous variation by putting experimental units that are similar into 'blocks'
only concerned w/ differences within block- differences btw blocks don't matter
lowers noise
113
factorial design
most powerful study design
study multiple treatments and their interactions
equal replication of all combinations of treatment
114
checking for pseudoreplication
check degrees of freedom, very large- problem
| overestimate = easier to reject Ho- pretending we have more power than we do
115
determining sample size, plan for
precision, power, data loss
116
determining sample size, wanting precision
want low CI
n ~ 8(sigma/uncertainty)^2
uncertainty is 1/2 CI
117
determining sample size, wanting power
```
detecting effect/difference
plan for probability of rejecting a false Ho
n~16(sigma/D)^2
D is min. effect size you want to detect
power is 0.8
```
118
ethics
avoid trivial experiment
collaborate to streamline efforts
substitute models for live animals when possible
keep encounters brief to reduce stress
119
most important in experimental study design
check common design problems
sample size (precision,power,data loss)
get a second opinion
120
most important in observational study design
keep track of confounding variables
121
good skewness range for normality
[-1,1]
122
normal quantile plot
QQ plot
| compares data w/ standardized value, should follow a straight line
123
right skew in QQ plot
above line (more positive data)
124
Shapiro-Wilk test
works like Hypothesis test, Ho: data normal
estimate pop mean and SD using sample data, tests match to normal distribution with same mean and SD
p-value < alpha, reject Ho (don't want to reject)
125
testing normality
Histogram
QQ plot
Shapiro-Wilk
126
normality tests sensitive
especially to outliers, over-rejection rate
sensitive to sample size
large n = more power
127
testing equal variances
Levene's test
128
Levene's test
Ho: sigma1 = sigma2
difference btw each data point and mean, test difference btw groups in the means of these differences
p-value < alpha reject (don't want to reject)
129
how to handle violations of test assumptions
ignore it
transform data
use nonparametric test
use permutation test
130
when to ignore normality
CLT- n >30 ----means are ~normally distributed
depends on data set though
can't ignore normality and compare one set skewed left with one skewed right
131
when to ignore equal variances
n large, n1 ~ n2
| 3 fold difference in SD usually ok
132
if can't ignore violation of equal variances
Welch's t-test- computes SE and df differently
133
most common transformations
log, arcsine, square-root
| log- only in data all > 0
134
nonparametrics
assume less about underlying distributions
usually based on rank data
Ho: ranks are same btw groups
sign test (instead of t test)
135
sign test
compares median to median in Ho
| each data pt- record whether above (+) or below (-) the Ho median
136
if Ho is true in sign test
half data will be above Ho, half will be below
137
sign test p-value
use binomial distribution-- probability of getting your measurement if Ho true, compare to alpha
138
binomial
P[Y≤y] = Σ(n choose y)(p)^y(1-p)^n-y
139
Mann-Whitney U-test
compare 2 groups using ranks
doesn't assume normality
assumes distributions are same shape
rank all data from both groups together, sum ranks for individual groups
140
Mann-Whitney U-test equation
```
U1 = n1n2 + [(n1(n1+1)/2] - R1
U2 = n1n2 - U1
```
141
interpreting Mann-Whitney U-test
choose larger of U1, U2 (test statistics)- compare to critical U from U distribution (table E)
note that Ucrit = U_alpha,(2 sided), n1, n2
used n1, n2 not DF
U < Ucrit d.n.r. Ho (2 groups not statistically different)
142
why Mann-Whitney doesn't use DF
not looking at estimating mean/variance, just comparing the shapes
143
problem with non-parametrics
low power- P[Type II] higher-- especially with low n
ranking data = major info loss
avoid use
Type I not altered
144
comparing > 2 groups
ANOVA - analysis of variance
| Ho: µ1 = µ2 = µ3 = µ4....
145
why use ANOVA
multiple t-tests to compare >2 groups increase Type I error- more tests = higher chance of falling within alpha
146
P[Type I]
1 - ( 1 - alpha ) ^N
N is number of t-tests you do
ex. 5 groups- 10 unique tests- P[TI] = 0.4
147
ANOVA tests
is there more variation btw groups than can be attributed to chance- breaks it down into: total variation, btw group variation, within group variation
maintains P[TI] = alpha
148
between-group variation
effect of interest (signal)
149
within-group variation
sampling error (noise)
150
2x2 ANOVA design
take 2 different variables-- look at all combinations and see if any effects between them in all directions
2 variables w/controls = 8 options
151
Hypothesis test steps
State Ho, Ha
calculate test statistic
determine critical value of null distribution (or P-value)
compare tests statistic to critical value (or P-value to sig. level)
evaluate Ho using alpha
152
why use alpha = 0.05
balances Type I error and Type II error
153
why are Type I and II errors conceptual
we don't know whether or not Ho is actually true
154
paired t-test is a type of
blocking
155
where does pseudoreplication happen/become a problem
data analysis stage, doesn't happen at data collection stage (subsamples)
156
ANOVA maintains
P[Type I Error] = alpha
157
ANOVA, Y bar
grand mean, main horizontal line, test for differences between grand mean and group means
158
ANOVA, Ho: F-ratio =
~1
159
ANOVA, if Ho is true, MSerror
= MS groups; same variation within and btw goups
160
ANOVA, MSgroup > MSerror
more variation between groups than within
161
ANOVA, test statistic
F-distribution, F_0.05,(1),MSgroup DF, MSerror DF = critical value
compare critical value to F-ratio
this is a one sided distribution we are looking for whether F-ratio is bigger than critical value (strictly)
162
ANOVA, F-ratio > F-critical
Reject Ho.. at least one group mean is different than the others
163
ANOVA, quantifying variation resulting from "treatment effect"
R^2 = SSgroups/SStotal
| R^2 [0,1]
164
ANOVA, high R^2
more of the variation can be explained by the treatment, usually want at least 0.5
165
ANOVA, R^2 = 0.43
43% of total variation is explained by differences in treatment
166
ANOVA, R^2 = low values
noisy data
167
ANOVA assumptions
Random samples from populations
Variable is normally distributed in each k population
Equal variance in all k populations
168
ANOVA unmet assumptions
large n, similar variances-- ignore
variances very different-- transform
non-parametric-- Kruskal-Wallis
169
ANOVA, which group(s) were different
Planned or Unplanned comparison of means
170
Planned comparisons of means (ANOVA)
comparison between means planned during study design, before data is obtained; for comparing ONE group w/ control (only 2 means); not common
171
Unplanned comparisons of means (ANOVA)
comparisons to determine differences between all pairs of mean; more common; controls Type I error
172
Planned comparison calculations (ANOVA)
```
like a 2-sample t-test
test statistic: t =(Ybar1 - Ybar2)/SE
SE= √ MSerror (1/n1 + 1/n2)
note that we use error mean square instead of pooled variance (as in a normal t-test)
df = N-k
t critical= t0.05(2), df
```
173
Unplanned comparison of means (ANOVA)
Tukey-Kramer
174
why do you need to know what kind of data you have
determines what kind of statistical test you an do
175
left skew
mean < median
| skew 'pulls' mean in direction of skew
176
C.I. notation
95% CI: a < µ < b (units)
177
accept null hypothesis
NEVER!!!
| only REJECT or FAIL TO REJECT
178
why do we choose alpha = 0.05
it balances TIE and TIIE which are actually conceptual, since we don't know if Ho is actually true or not
179
standard error or estimate
standard deviation of its sampling distribution; measures precision of the estimate
180
SD vs. SE
SD- SPREAD of a distribution, deviation from mean
| SE- PRECISION of an estimate; SD of sampling distribution
181
test statistics
used to evaluate whether the data is reasonably expected under the Ho
182
P-value
probability of getting the data, or something more unusual, given Ho is true
183
reject Ho if
p-value ≤ alpha
less than OR equal to
0.049, 0.05
184
Steps in hypothesis testing
1. State Ho and Ha
2. Calculate test statistic
3. Determine critical value or P-value
4. Compare test statistic to critical value
5. Evaluate Ho using sig. level (and interpret)
185
Type I error
Reject Ho, given Ho true
186
Type II error
Do not reject Ho, given Ho is false
187
If we reduce alpha
P[Type I] decreases, P[Type II] increases
188
Experimental design steps
1. Develop clear statement of research question
2. List possible outcomes
3. Develop experimental plan
4. Check for design problems
189
How to minimize bias
control group, randomization, blinding
190
How to minimize sampling error
replication- lare n lowers noise
balance- lowers noise
blocking
191
to avoid pseudoreplication
check df- obviously if its huge something is wrong
192
Tukey-Kramer
for 3 means: three Y bars, three Ho's; Q distribution; 3 row table w/ group i, group y, difference in means, SE, test statistic, critical q, outcome (reject/do not)
193
Q-distribution
symmetrical, uses larger critical values to restrict Type I error; more difficult to reject null
194
Tukey-Kramer test statistic
```
q = Y_i(bar) - Y_j(bar) / SE
SE = √ MSerror(1/n1 + 1/n2)
```
195
Tukey-Kramer testing
test statistic, q-value
critical value, q_α,k,N-k
k = # groups
N = total # observations
196
Tukey-Kramer assumptions
random samples
data normally distributed in each group
equal variances in all groups
197
2 Factor ANOVA
2 Factors = 3 Ho's: difference in 1 factor, difference in 2nd factor, difference in interaction
198
If interaction is significant
do not conclude that factor is not
199
Interaction plots
y-axis: response variable
x-axis: one of 2 main factors
legend for: other of 2 main factors (different symbols or colors)
2 lines
200
interpreting interaction plot, interaction
lines parallel: no significance in interaction
201
interpreting interaction plot, b (data not on x-axis)
take average along each line and compare the 2 on the y-axis, if they are not close then they are significant
202
interpreting interaction plot, a (data on x-axis)
x-axis: take average between the 2 dots (for each level of a), compare on y-axis, if they are not close they are significant
203
control groups in an observational/experimental study will
reduce bias
| will not affect sampling error
204
correlation ≠
causation
205
correlation
"r"- comparing 2 numerical variables, [-1,1], no units, always linear
quantify strength and direction of LINEAR relationship (+/-)
206
how to calculate correlation
```
r = signal/noise
signal= deviation in x and y together for every point (multiply each deviation before summing)
```
207
correlation Ho
no correlation between interbreeding and number of pup surviving their first winter (ρ = 0)
208
determining correlation
```
test statistic: r/SE_r
SE_r = √ (1-r^2) / (n-2)
df = n-2
critical: tα,(2),df
compare statistic w/ critical
```
209
df
n - number of parameters you estimate
correlation- you estimate 2
mann whitney- 0 parameters
210
stating correlation results
be careful not to interpret-- no causation!
211
understanding r
easy to understand because of lack of units, however, can trick you into thinking comparable across studies- across studies need to limit ranges
212
Attenuation bias
if x or y are measured with error, r will be lower; with increasing error, r is underestimated; avoided by taking means of subsamples
213
correlation and significance
statistically sig. relationships can be weak, moderate, strong
sig.– probability, if Ho is true
correlation– direction, strength of linear relationship
214
weak, moderate, strong correlation
```
r = ±0.2 – weak
r = ±0.5 – moderate
r = ±0.8 – strong
```
215
correlation assumptions
bivariate normality- x and y are normal
| relationship is linear
216
dealing with assumption violations (correlation)
histograms
transformations in one or both variables
remove outlier
217
outlier removal
–need justification (i.e. data error)
–carefully consider if variation is natural
–conduct analyses w/ and w/o outlier to assess effect of removal
218
natural variation, outliers
is your n big enough to detect if that is natural variation in the data
219
if outlier removal has no effect
may as well leave it in!
220
non-parametric Correlation
Spearman's rank correlation; strength and direction of linear association btw ranks of 2 variables; useful for outlier data
221
Spearman's rank correlation assumptions
random sampling
| linear relationship between ranks
222
Spearman's rank correlation
r_s: same structure as Pearson's correlation but based on ranks
r_s = [Σ(Ri-Rbar)(Si-Sbar)] / [ Σ(Ri-Rbar)^2Σ(Si-Sbar)^2 ]
223
conducting Spearmans
rank x and y values separately; each data point will have 2 ranks; sum ranks for each variable; n = # data pts.; divide each rank sum by n to get Rbar and Sbar; calculate r_s (statistic); calculate critical r_s(0.05,df)
224
if 2 points have same rank (Spearman)
average of that rank and skip rank before/after; w/o any ties, the 2 values on the bottom of r_s equation will be the same
225
Spearman hypothesis
ρ_s = 0, correlation = 0
226
Spearman df
df = n because no estimations are being made in ranking
227
linear regression
–relationship between x and y described by a line
–line can predict y from
–line indicates rate of change of y with x
Y = a + bX
228
correlation vs. regression
regression assumes x,y relationship can be described by a line that predicts y from x
corr. - is there a relationship
reg. - can we predict y from x
229
perfect correlation
r = 1, all points are exactly on the line– regression line fitted to that 'line' could be the exact same line for a non-perfect correlation
230
rounding mean results
DO NOT; 4.5 puppies is a valid answer
231
best line of fit
minimizes SS = least squares regression; smaller sum of square deviations
232
used for evaluating fit of the line to the data
residuals
233
residuals
difference between actual Y value and predicted values for Y (the line); measure scatter above/below the line
234
calculating linear regression
calculate slope using b = formula; find a– a = Ybar - bXbar; plug in to Ybar = a + bXbar; rewrite as Y = a + bX; rewrite using words
235
Yhat
predicted value- if you are trying to predict a y value after equation has been solved
236
why do we solve linear regression with Xbar, Ybar
line of fit always goes through Xbar, Ybar
237
how good is line of fit
MSresiduals = Σ(Yi - Yhat)^2 / n-2
which is SSresidual / n-2
quantifies fit of line- smaller is better
238
Prediction confidence, linear regression
precision of predicted mean Y for a given X
| precision of predicted single Y for a given X
239
Precision of predicted mean Y for a given X, linear regression
narrowest near mean of X, and flare outward from there; confidence band– most confident in prediction about the mean
240
precision of predicted single Y for a given X, linear regression
much wider because predicting a single Y from X is more uncertain than predicting the mean Y for that X
241
extrapolating linear regression
DO NOT extrapolate beyond data, can't assume relationship continues to be linear
242
linear regression Ho
Slope is zero (β = 0), number of dees cannot be predicted from predator mass
243
linear regression Ha
slope is not zero (β ≠ 0), number of dees can be predicted from predator mass (2 sided)
244
Hypothesis testing of linear regression
testing about the slope:
–t-test approach
–ANOVA approac
245
Putting linear regression into words
Dee rate = 3.4 - 1.04(predator mass)
| Number of dees decreases by about 1 pre kilo of predator mass increase
246
testing about the slope, t-test approach
```
test statistic t = b–β_o / SE_b
SE_b = √MSresidual/Σ(Xi-Xbar)^2
MSres. = Σ(Yi-Yhat)^2 / n-2
critical t = t_α(2),df
df = n - 2
compare statistic, critical
```
247
testing about the slope, ANOVA approach
source of variation: regression, residual, total
| sum of squares, df, mean squares, F-ratio
248
calculating testing about the slope, ANOVA approach
```
SSregres = Σ(Yi^ - Ybar)^2
SSresid. = Σ(Yi-Yi^)^2
MSreg. = SSreg/df df=1
MSresid = SSres/df df=n-2
F-ratio = MSreg/MSres.
SStotal = Σ(Yi-Ybar)^2
df total = n-1
```
249
interpreting ANOVA approach to linear regression
If Ho is true, MSreg. = MSres
250
% of variation in Y explained by X
R^2 = SSreg/SStotal
| a% of variation in Y can be predicted by X
251
Outliers, linear regression
create non-nomral Y-value distribution, violate assumption of equal variance in Y, strong effect on slope and intercept; try not to transform data
252
linear regression assumptions
linear relationship
normality of Y at each X
variance of Y same for every X
random sampling of Y's
253
detecting non-linearity
look at the scatter plot, look at residual plot
254
checking residuals
should be symmetric above/below zero
should be more points close line (0) than far
equal variance at all values of x
255
non-linear regression
when relationship is not linear, transformations don't work, many options- aim for simplicity
256
quadratic curves
Y = a + bX + cX^2
when c is negative, curve is humped
when c is positive, curve is u shaped
257
multiple explanatory variables
improve detection of treatment effects
investigate effects of ≥2 treatments + interactions
adjust for confounding variables when comparing ≥2 groups
258
GLM
general linear model; multiple explanatory variables can be included (even categorical); response variable (Y) = linear model + error
259
least-squares regression GLM
```
Y = a + bX
error = residuals
```
260
single-factor ANOVA GLM
```
Y = µ + A
error = variability within groups
µ = grand mean
```
261
GLM hypotheses
Ho: response = constant; response is same among treatments
Ha: response = constant + explanatory variable
262
constant
constant = intercept or grand mean
263
variable
variable = variable x coefficient
264
ANOVA results, GLM
source of variation: Companion, Residual, Total
| SS, df, MS, F, P
265
ANOVA, GLM F-ratio
MScomp. / MSres.
266
ANOVA, GLM R^2
R^2 = SScom. / SStot.
| % of variation that is explained
267
ANOVA, GLM, reject Ho
Model with treatment variable fits the data better than the null model but only 25% of the variation is explained
268
Multiple explanatory variables, goals
improve detection of treatment effects
adjust for effects of confounding variables
investigate multiple variables and their interaction
269
design feature for improving detection of treatment effects
blocking
270
design feature for adjusting for effects of confounding variables
covariates
271
design feature for investigating multiple variables and their interaction
factorial design
272
experiments with blocking
account for extraneous variation by putting experimental units into blocks that share common features
ex. instead of comparing randomly dispersed diversity, look at response variable within a block
273
GLM, blocking
Ho: mean prey diversity is same in every fish abundance treatment
Ho: Diversity = grand mean + block
Ha: mean prey diversity is not the same in every fish abundance treatment
Ha: diversity = grand mean + block + fish abundance
274
ANOVA, GLM, blocking
source of var.: block, abundance, residual, total
| SS, df, MS, F, P
275
Blocking Ho
Ho: mean prey diversity is the same in each block
Ha: mean prey diversity is not the same in each block
Block R^2 = SSblock / SStotal
Abundance + block R^2 =
SSabun. + SSblock / SStotal
276
block as a variable
block is an explanatory variable even if we are not inherently interested in its effect b/c it contributes to variation
277
covariates
reduce confounding variables, reduce bias
278
ANCOVA, GLM
Response = constant + explanatory + covariate
279
ANOCVA hypotheses
Ho:No interaction between caste and body mass
Response = constant + exp. + covariate
Ha: Interaction between caste and body mass
Response = cons. + exp + cov. + explanatory*covariate
280
ANCOVA hypotheses graphs
Ho: parallel
Ha: not parallel
affect is measured as the vertical difference between the two lines
281
Testing ANCOVA
are the slopes equal
| if not significant, drop interaction term and run model again
282
df of interaction =
df_covariant * df_explanatory
283
Factorial design
multiple explanatory variables
| fully factorial- every level of every variable and interaction is studied
284
Factorial GLM statements
Ha: algal cover = grand mean + herbivory + height + herbivory*height
Ho: a.c. = G.M. + Herb. + Height
285
GLM null hypotheses
do not include interaction statements
| always one term different from alternative
286
GLM degrees of freedom
```
explanatory:
df = levels of treatment - 1
interaction:
df = df_exp.1 * df_exp.2
df always total to grand n - 1
```
287
Factorial GLM hypotheses graphs
Ho: no interaction = parallel lines
Ha: interaction = non parallel, maybe crossing lines
288
Probability of independent events
P[X] = P[A]*P[B]*P[C]*....
| if multiple ways to arrive at P[X] then add them up, or use Binomial (if conditions met)
289
Binomial distribution
probability distribution for # of successes in a fixed n of independent trials
290
Binomial conditions
independent
probability of success is same for each trial
2 possible outcomes- success/failure
291
proportion equations
```
p^ = X/n
SE_p^ = √ [p^ (1-p^)] / [n–1]
```
292
Binomial test, testing proportions
whether relative frequency of successes in a population matches null expectation
Ho: p = p_o
293
law of large numbers
higher n = better estimate of p (or any estimate for that matter), lower SE
294
binomial testing proportions calculations
test statistic = observed number of successes
| null expectation = null 'p' * number of 'trials' (weighted by trials)
295
steps in finding binomial p-value
use null 'p' in binomial to calculate observed successes + anything more extreme; multiply by 2 (2 sided test)- this is the p-value; not comparing to critical value; compare to alpha
296
binomial, p < 0.001
reject Ho, p^ is significantly different than Ho: p = under a proportional model
297
95% CI for a population parameter
p' = ( X + 2 ) / ( n + 4 )
p' ± Z √ [p' (1–p')] / [n+4]
Z = 1.96 for 95% CI
298
>2 possible categories
X^2 goodness-of-fit test
| compare frequency data w/ >2 possible outcomes to frequencies expected from probability model in Ho
299
Bar graphs
categorical data
| space between bars
300
X^2 example (days)
Ho: # of births is the same on each day
| births on Monday is proportional to # of Mondays in the year
301
X^2
test statistic measures discrepancy btw observed (data) and expected (Ho) frequencies
302
X^2 calculations
```
find E for each group, then X^2 for each group, sum X^2 = test statistic, compare to critical value
E = n*p
X^2 = Σ (O – E)^2 / E
df = # categories – 1
critical X^2_α,df
```
303
Sampling distribution for Ho, binomial
Histogram- sampling distribution for all possible values for X^2
black line- theoretical X^2 probability distribution
304
higher X^2 values
observed farther from expected
305
X^2, why -1 in df
using n to calculate expected value- restricts data
306
X^2 reject Ho
data do not fit a proportional model, births are not equally distributed through the week
307
X^2 goodness-of-fit assumptions
random sample
no category has expected frequency > 1
no more than 20% of the categories have expected frequencies < 5
308
Poisson distribution
describes probability of success in a block of time or space, when successes happen independently and with equal probability
309
distribution of points in space
clumped
random
dispersed
310
Poisson, P[X successes] =
```
E = e^-µ . µ^x / X!
µ = mean # of independent successes
```
311
Poisson hypotheses
Ho: number of extinctions per time interval has a Poisson distribution
Ha: number of extinctions do not follow a Poisson distribution
312
calculate a mean from a frequency table
µ = (n1*f1)+(n2*f2)+(n3*f3)+.... / n
313
hypothesis testing, poisson
calculate probability of success (expected value) for each level; calculate X^2 for each level, sum them; compare to critical value
df = # categories - 1
314
determining if data are clumped or dispersed
s^2 =
[ Σ (Xi - µ)^2 * (obs. frequency)] / (n–1)
clumped: s^2 > µ
dispersed: s^2 < µ
315
X^2 used for
proportional
binomial
poisson
316
rejecting Ho, binomial
probability of success is not same in all trials or trials are not independent
317
rejecting Ho, poisson
successes are not independent, probability of success is not constant over time or space
318
contingency analysis
```
whether one variable depends on the other (is contingent on)
in a contingency table
explanatory variable in columns
response variable in row
each subject appears in table once
```
319
contingency Ho
no relationship between variables, variables independent
320
associating categorical variables
test for association between ≥2 categorical variables
are categorical variables independent
odds ratio
X^2 contingency test
321
odds ratio
to measure magnitude of association between 2 variables when each has only 2 categories
odds: O^ = p^ / 1–p^
odds ratio: OR = O1^ / O2^
322
X^2 contingency test
to test whether the 2 variables are independent; to test association between 2 categorical variables; need expected frequencies for each cell under Ho
323
OR =
OR=1 : odds same for both groups
| OR>1 : odds higher in 1st group- associated with increased risk
324
expected frequencies, X^2 contingency
P[A ∩ B] =
(row total / grand total)(column total / grand total)
E = P[A ∩ B] * grand total
325
calculating X^2 contingency
X^2 = Σ (O–E)^2 / E = test stat
df = (#rows–1)(#columns–1)
compare to critical value
326
rejecting Ho, contingency
Reject Ho that A and B are independent; P[A] is contingent upon B
327
X^2 contingency test assumptions
random sample
| no cells can have expected frequency <5
328
if X^2 contingency test assumptions not met
≥2 rows/columns can be combined for larger expected frequencies
329
to test independence of 2 categorical variables when expected frequencies are low
Fisher's exact test
330
Fisher's exact test
gives exact p-value for a test of association in a 2x2 table
331
Fisher's exact test assumptions
random samples
332
Fisher's Ho
state of A and B are independent
333
conduct Fisher's
–list all possible 2x2 tables w/ results as or more extreme than observed table
–p-value is sum of the Pr of all extreme tables under Ho of independence
–assess null
334
Computer-Intensive methods
cheap speed
hypothesis testing- simulation, permutation (randomization)
standard errors, CI- bootstrapping
335
hypothesis testing, simulation
–simulates sampling process many times- generate null distribution from simulated data
–creates a 'population' w/ parameter values specified by Ho
–used commonly when null distr. unknown
336
simulation to generate null distribution
1. create and sample imaginary population w/ parameter values as specified by Ho
2. calculate test statistic on simulated sample
3. repeat 1&2 large number of times
4. gather all simulated test statistic values to form null distr.
5. compare test statistic from data to null distr. to approx. p-value and assess Ho
337
generated null distribution
P-value ~ fraction of simulated X^2 values ≥ observed X^2
| none ≥ observed, P < 0.0001
338
Permutation tests (Randomization test)
test hypotheses of association between 2 variables; randomization done w/o replacement; needs 'parameter' for association btw 2 variables
339
Permutation test used when
assumption of other methods are not met or null distribution is unknown
340
Permutation steps
1. Create permuted data set w/ response variable randomly shuffled w/o replacement
2. calculate measure of association for permuted sample
3. repeat 1&2 large number of times
4. Gather all permuted values of test statistic to form null distribution
5. Determine approximate P-value and assess Ho
341
Bootstrapping
calculate SE or CI for parameter estimate
useful if no formula or if distribution unknown
randomly 'resamples' from the data with replacement to estimate SE or CI
ex. median
342
bootstrapping steps
1. random sample w/ replacement- 1st bootstrap sample
2. calculate estimate using bootstrap sample
3. repeat many times
4. calculate bootstrap SE
* only sampling from original sample values
343
simulation
mimics repeated sampling under Ho
344
permutation
randomly reassigns observed values for one of two variables
345
bootstrapping
used to calculate SE by resampling from the data set
346
Jack-knifing
leave-one-out method for calculating SE
347
Jack-knifing
gives same result every time (unlike boot strapping)
| calculates mean from n-1, then n-2, then n-3
348
statistical significance
observed difference (effect) are not likely due to random chance
349
practical significance
is the difference (effect) large enough to be important or of value in a practical sense
350
effect size
ES– degree or strength of effect
ex. magnitude of relationship btw 2 variables
3 ways to quantify
351
3 ways to quantify ES
standardized mean difference
correlation
odds-ratio
352
standardized ean difference
Cohen's d
353
can find statistical significance
with a large n, which may not be large effect size, and may not be significant at lower n
354
Quantifying ES
2% difference btw population and sample means
difficult to interpret mean differences w/o accounting for variance (s^2)
Cohen standardized ES w/ variance
355
Cohen's d
simplest measure of ES
difference btw means / Sp
standardizes, puts all results on same scale (makes meta-analysis possible)
356
Meta-analysis
analysis of analysis
synthesis of multiple studies on a topic that gives an overall conclusion; increases sig. of individual studies (larger n)
black line = 1-1 line - no difference, no more, no less
357
steps in meta-anlysis
define question to create one large study- general or specific; review literature to collect all studies- exhaustively; compute effect sizes and mean ES across al studies; look for effects of study quality
358
literature search
beware of 'garbage in, garbage out', publication bias, file-drawer problem
359
publication bias
bias- studies that weren't published- lower n, insignificant, low effect
360
garbage in, garbage out
justify why studies are not included, what is considered poor science?
361
file-drawer problem
studies that are not published- grad thesis, government research
362
look for effects of study quality, Meta-analysis
do differences in n or methodology matter
- correlation btw n and ES?
- difference in observ. and exp. studies?
- base meta-analysis on higher quality studies
363
pros of Meta-analysis
tells overall strength & variability of effect
can increase statistical power, reduce Type II error
can reveal publication bias
can reveal associations btw study type and study outcome
364
cons/challenges of meta-analysis
assumes studies are directly comparable and unbiased samples
limited to accessible studies including necessary summary data
may have higher Type I error if publication bias is present
365
what do we get out of the statistical process
a probability statement
| this process is called Frequentist statistics, most commonly used
366
What does frequentist statistics do
- answer probability statements if/given the null is true
- infer properties of a population using samples
- doesn't tell if null is true, not proof of anything
- useful, but must understand so not overinterpreted
367
frequentists statistics developed
Cohen, 1994; Null Hypothesis Sifnificance Testing
368
why use frequentist statistics
```
appears to be objective and exact
readily available and easily used
everyone else uses it
scientists are taught to use it
supervisors & journals require it
```
369
limits of frequentist statistics
–provides binary info only: significant or not
–does not provide means for assessing relative strength of support for alternate hypotheses
–failing to reject Ho does not mean Ho is true
–does not answer real question
370
does not provide means for assessing relative strength of support for alternate hypotheses
ex. conclude the slope of the line is not 0, how strong is the evidence that the slope is 0.4 vs 0.5
371
real question
whether scientific hypothesis is true or false
- treatment has an effect (however small)
- if so, then Ho of no effect is false, but we are unable to show that Ho is false (or true)
- we can only show the probability of getting the data, if Ho is true
372
question we CAN answer
about the data, not the hypothesis- given the data, how likely is Ho to be true
373
more limitations for frequentist stats
whether a result is significant depends on n, ES, alpha
| significant does not always mean important
374
larger n, ES, alpha
increase likelihood of rejecting Ho- getting significant result
375
significant does not necessarily mean important
effects can be tiny and still statistically significant
376
focus on p-values and Ho rejection
distracts from the real goal- deciding whether data support scientific hypotheses and are practically/biologically important
377
mostly we should be interested in
size/strength/direction of an effect
378
Bayesian statistics
incorporate beliefs or knowledge of parameter values into analyses to contain population estimate
379
frequentists vs. bayesian example
100 coin flips all give 95 heads, what is the probability that the next flip will be a head?
freq. - 50%
bay. - 95%
