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Chordates Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Chordate zoology is what type of biology

A

whole-organism biology (not just cell, function, form,.. everything)

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2
Q

organismal biology

A

research at the level of the whole organism, integrated over structure, function, ecology, and evolution

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3
Q

organism structure

A

anatomy, morphology

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4
Q

organism function

A

physiology, behaviour

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5
Q

evolution

A

phylogeny

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6
Q

functional morphology

A

focuses on the link between form (morphology) and performance

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7
Q

ecological morphology

A

focuses on the link between performance and ecology (ecomorphs, ecomorphotypes)

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8
Q

ecomorph

A

species with the same structural habitat/niche, similar in morphology and behavior, but not necessarily close phyletically

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9
Q

ecomorphotype

A

Any morphological modification caused by, or related to, specific ecological conditions

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10
Q

integrative biology

A

near synonym for organismal biology; brings different aspects of organisms and their environment together

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11
Q

comparative biology

A

an area of research that attempts to explain biodiversity and its adaptive radiation in a phylogenetic (historical) framework (comparative method)
how phylogeny tests/explains hypotheses

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12
Q

natural history

A

scientific study of the organism in its natural surroundings

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13
Q

kinds of chordates

A

Tunicata
Cephalochordata
Vertebrata

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14
Q

Tunicata includes

A

tunicates and sea squirts

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15
Q

Tunicata was formerly called

A

Urochordata (also protochordates- not valid taxonomic name)

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16
Q

Cephalochordata includes

A

lancelets (amphioxus)

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17
Q

Numbers of chordate species

A

Tunicata - 2150
Cephalochorddata - 25
Vertebrata - 63 600
*numbers are always changing

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18
Q

tunicates

A

free-living larva, sessile adult

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19
Q

shared characteristics of chordates

A 
notochord
dorsal hollow nerve cord
pharyngeal gill slits
endostyle
muscular postanal tail
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20
Q

notochord

A

incorporated in vertebral column in vertebrates

stiff, flexible rod, runs length of back, provides connections for body muscles, and support

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21
Q

dorsal hollow nerve cord

A

spinal cord with brain at anterior end in vertebrates

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22
Q

pharyngeal gill slits

A

slits in pharynx/throat region through which water passes and food particles are filtered out, involved in filter-feeding and gas exchange
retained in fish- gas exchange
tetrapods- gill slits disappear in adults
gill arches become jaws and other structures in vertebrates

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23
Q

endostyle

A

ciliated groove before larynx
secretes mucus to trap food
homologous with thyroid gland in vertebrates

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24
Q

muscular postanal tail

A

extension of the body that runs past the anal opening

only present in embryonic stage of humans

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25
Q

paedomorphosis

A

retaining juvenile characteristics into adult hood

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26
Q

sister group to vertebrates

A

urochordata (most current theory)

vertebrates and urochordates are sister group to cephalochordates

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27
Q

pattern vs. process

A

phylogeny vs. scenario

current phylogenetic theory (pattern), process (scenario) yet to be determined

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28
Q

myomeres

A

blocks of skeletal muscle tissue found commonly in chordates. commonly zig-zag, “W” or “V”-shaped muscle fibers

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29
Q

possible first chordate

A

Pikaia

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30
Q

aspects of morphology (anatomy)

A

comparative
functional
transitional

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31
Q

comparative morphology

A

similarities/differences between groups

ex. heart

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32
Q

functional morphology

A

how organisms are equipped to deal with different situations

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33
Q

transitional morphology

A

macroevolutionary change- how we go from one form to another

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34
Q

why study chordates

A 
intrinsic interest
vertebrates are us
diversity
evolutionary record
model organisms
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35
Q

chordate diversity

A

masses range from 10^-4 - 10^5 kg! (larva to blue whale)

altitudes range 58km- deep ocean - over himalayans

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36
Q

why evolutionary record is important for studying chordates

A

they have the best preservation of all organisms

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37
Q

model organisms

A

amphibians- developmental biology

birds- population biology

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38
Q

vertebrates characteristics

A 
internal skeleton
vertebral column with cranium at anterior
spinal nerve cord with brain at anterior
neural crest
HOX genes
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39
Q

vertebrate internal skeleton

A

bone and/or cartilage

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40
Q

vertebral column

A

individual vertebra, skull at end
rudimentary in lampreys
lacking in hagfish
full formed in gnathostomes

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41
Q

gnathostomes

A

jawed vertebrates

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42
Q

neural crest

A

cells/tissue- formed during embryonic development and migrate to head

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43
Q

HOX genes

A

do exist in inverts but more important in vertebrates

vertebrates have the most HOX genes

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44
Q

“grades” of vertebrates

A

“fishes”

Tetrapods

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45
Q

paraphyletic

A

composed of some but not all members descending from a common ancestor

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46
Q

fishes

A

paraphyletic- would be monophyletic if we include all groups that have come from fishes (including us)
31,000 species
mainly Osteichthyes

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47
Q

groups in fishes

A

Agnathans
Chondrichthyes
Osteichthyes

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48
Q

Agnathans

A

jawless vertebrates- hagfish and lampreys, Ostracoderms

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49
Q

Chondrichthyes

A

cartilaginous fish- sharks, rays, ratfish

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50
Q

Osteichthyes

A

bony fish

Crossopterygii, Actinopterygii

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51
Q

Cossopterygii

A

Actinistia + Dipnoi (lobe-finned fish- coelacanth + lungfish)

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52
Q

Actinopterygii

A

ray-finned fish (most fish)

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53
Q

Tetrapods

A

all the rest of the vertebrates

4 feet, lots of secondary loss examples

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54
Q

Tetrapod examples

A

Amphibia
Amniota
Aves
Mammalia

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55
Q

Amphibia

A

7000 species

lissamphibians- apodans salamanders, anurans

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56
Q

Amniota

A

amniotes– Reptilia

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57
Q

Reptilia

A

10,000 species- turtles, crocodiles, tuataras, lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians

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58
Q

Aves

A

10,000 species

directly derived from reptiles, make reptiles a non-taxonomic group

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59
Q

Mammalia

A

5500 species- mammals

mostly placentals, some monotremes and marsupials

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60
Q

Ectotherms

A

“fishes”
amphibians
“reptiles”

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61
Q

endotherms

A

generate own body heat metabolically
birds
mammals

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62
Q

Amniotes

A

“reptiles”
birds
mammals
(taxonomic group)

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63
Q

Anamniotes

A

“Fishes”
Amphibians
(not a taxonomic group)

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64
Q

Sauropsids

A

“reptiles”

birds

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65
Q

synapsids

A

mammals

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66
Q

lampreys

A

Agnathan- parasitize other fish

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67
Q

Fossil Agnathans

A

Ostracoderms- coats of bone armour, very different from living fish

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68
Q

Gnathostomata

A

defined by presence of jaws with teeth

usually have limbs

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69
Q

thought to be closest living relative of tetrapods

A

lungfish (3 species)

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70
Q

tetrapoda

A

limbs with digits for terrestrial locomotion
internal nostrils
tympanic membrane and stapes
strong skeleton

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71
Q

internal nostrils

A

breathing through nose

fish do not breath through nose (except lungfish)

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72
Q

tetrapod tympanic membrane and stapes

A

to detect airborne sounds- ear drum

in fish stapes supports skull, in tetrapod it is main bone by which sound is transported into inner ear

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73
Q

tetrapod strong skeleton

A

support against gravity (adaptation to terrestrial life)

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74
Q

Lissamphibia

A

3 major, distinct morphological groups
thin skin
complex life cycle
numerous departures from theme

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75
Q

Lissamphibia thin skin

A

highly permeable
respiratory gas exchange- skin covered in mucus to facilitate exchange
water exchange- drink by skin, lose water through skin– restricted to moist habitats

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76
Q

Lissamphibia complex life cycle

A

includes metamorphosis

aquatic egg– aquatic larva– aquatic/terrestrial juvenile and adult

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77
Q

Amphibian groups

A

salamanders
anurans
apodans

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78
Q

Salamanders

A 
mostly north temperate zone
mostly elongate body
mostly limbed- some highly reduced
some permanently aquatic retain larval form, some bipass larval form- direct development, lay eggs on ground, hatch into full formed adult
some pedomorphosis, have gills
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79
Q

Anurans

A

hyper developed back legs
aquatic/terrestrial/arboreal (ex. tree frogs climb w/ suction cups)
no paedomorphic frogs
some cut out larval stage
larval/adult generally radically different

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80
Q

unique Anuran forms

A

one species- female swallows eggs and they develop in her stomach

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81
Q

Apodans

A

(Caecilians)
superficially resemble earthworms/snakes
mostly live hidden in the ground, least familiar order of amphibians, smallest group, carnivores, large mouth
aquatic/burrowing/nocturnal/terrestrial
some have complex lifestyle, some direct development
live bearing- no placenta, hyper developed gills, mostly viviporous

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82
Q

Amniota

A

amniotic egg- amniote surrounds embryo

exclusively internal fertilization

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83
Q

allantois

A

waste dump, highly vascularized (blood vessels)

develops to line membrane surrounding the egg- transport system for gas exchange

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84
Q

amniote shell

A

holds eggs together, has mating consequences- necessitates internal fertilization, must develop on land (oviparity)

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85
Q

oviparity

A

Oviparous animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother

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86
Q

Reptilia

A

not a taxon group
thicker skin, covered with epidural scutes (keratin)
much more terrestrially adapted, lose water slower

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87
Q

scutes

A

scales

keratin provides mechanical protection, defense against water loss, protection of lipids

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88
Q

“reptile” groups

A 
turtles
tuataras
lizards
amphisbaenians
snakes
crocodilians
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89
Q

turtles

A

only vertebrate in which ribs are outside

lots of aquatic, some marine, some terrestrial

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90
Q

Tuataras

A

endemic to New Zealand, highly restricted, resemble most lizards, part of a distinct lineage
long, slow life style, last remaining species of diverse group

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91
Q

“lizards”

A

biggest group of “reptiles”
very diverse, worldwide, terrestrial, arboreal
lots of long slender bodies w/o limbs

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92
Q

Amphisbaenians

A

derived from lizards, sometimes called worm lizards
burrowing species, swim, mostly tropic, some subtropic, mostly lack limbs, different head shapes for specialization of burrowing

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93
Q

head types of Amphisbaenians

A

round head- soft sediment

wedge shaped head- hard substrate

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94
Q

snakes

A

mostly have no trace of limbs

many arboreal- long and slender to spread weight out over branches

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95
Q

rain snake

A

oval cross section

tail flattened to propel through water

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96
Q

Crocodilians

A 
~22 species
living forms all fairly similar
body covered with osteoderms
long, elongate skull
extant are only aquatic 
tropical/subtropical
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97
Q

osteoderms

A

bony deposits forming scales, plates or other structures in the dermal layers of the skin

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98
Q

crocodile snout specialization

A

long, skinny snout- fish eating- quicker swiping through water

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99
Q

Aves

A 
highly modified reptiles
endothermic
body covered with feathers (keratin)
legs covered with epidermal scutes
wings and other modifications for flight
modified jaw with beak (keratin) and no teeth
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100
Q

bird feet/beak

A

tell a lot about overall life ecology

ex. flightless - marine

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101
Q

bird feathers

A

aid endothermy

major flight surface of wing

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102
Q

Mammalia

A 
endothermic
body covered with hair/fur (keratin, insolation)
highly differentiated dentition
numerous derived traits in skeleton
pinna
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103
Q

derived traits in mammal skeleton

A

squamosal-dentary jaw joint

7 cervical vertebrae (neck vertebrae)- almost all mammals have 7

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104
Q

Pinna

A

the visible part of the ear that resides outside of the head

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105
Q

main groups of mammals

A

monotremes
marsupials
placentals

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106
Q

monotremes

A

lay eggs- platypus, echidna
only a few species
basically same as reptile eggs- hatch then female feeds milk via ducts (not nipples)

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107
Q

marsupials

A

wide diversity of form, mostly in Australia, bears, rodents, carnivores, koala, kangaroo, opossum, wombat
have placenta but not well developed
embryo develops in uterus for short period of time
born at early embryonic stage, crawls up to pouch and attaches until ready to be born

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108
Q

marsupial embryo pouch

A

marsupion

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109
Q

placentals

A

development until birth is in uterus

intimate connection between embryo and mother (nutrients, gas exchange)

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110
Q

important parts of evolution

A

genes, chromosomes, alleles, mutation (many neutral, some lethal), proteins (structural, hormones, enzymes), recombination, dominance, pleiotropy, polygenic traits, epistasis, regulatory genes

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111
Q

pleiotropy

A

single genes code for multiple parts of the body

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112
Q

epistasis

A

interactions between genes

effect of gene depends on presence/expression of other genes

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113
Q

regulatory genes

A

govern expression of genes

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114
Q

phenotype =

A

genotype * environment

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115
Q

phenotypic plasticity

A

ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment

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116
Q

heritability

A

the proportion of observed variation in a particular trait (as height) that can be attributed to inherited genetic factors in contrast to environmental ones

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117
Q

reaction norms

A

expression of the phenotype of a particular genotype in different environments

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118
Q

no genotype environment interaction, reaction norm

A

phenotype vs. environment graph

variation is constant, parallel for 2 genotypes among different environments

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119
Q

genotype environment interaction, reaction norm

A

genotypes are not parallel or constant (lines may cross)

one genotype may produce multiple phenotypes

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120
Q

phenotypic flexibility

A

reversible changes within individuals

ex. plumage variation with season- changeable/reversible phenotype

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121
Q

types of selection

A 
artificial selection
(natural) selection
adaptation
directional selection
balancing selection
disruptive selection
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122
Q

natural selection

A

variation, heritability, differential survival/reproduction

variation has to be heritable for evolution to occur

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123
Q

adaptation

A

a trait that has arisen from natural selection

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124
Q

three modes of selection

A

stabilizing
directional
disruptive

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125
Q

stabilizing selection

A

balancing
extreme values are a disadvantage and are ‘pruned’
keep population at certain ‘optimum’

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126
Q

directional selection

A

one extreme is disadvantageous

leeds to a shift away from one extreme

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127
Q

disruptive selection

A

intermediates are disadvantageous

selection is for the extreme- split down the ‘middle’

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128
Q

example of directional selection

A

high proportion of unbounded snakes- selection against banding- population pushed primarily to unbounded
banded snakes remain in population due to migrations from mainland
balance between migration and selection

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129
Q

example of balancing selection

A

UK birth weights- low mortality in mid weight babies
small babies underdeveloped, large babies died during birth
selection for optimal birth size- med size babies were commonest, had best chance of survival, most likely to pass on their characteristics

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130
Q

selection isn’t the only factor that determines change

A

genetic drift

founder effect

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131
Q

genetic drift

A

genes that wouldn’t normally be passed on are passed due to small population- selection goes in different direction that it normally would

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132
Q

founder effect

A

small founding colony of individuals will have more limited make-up than the population they came from, depends on founding colony being small

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133
Q

species/speciation concepts

A 
multiple species concepts
discontinuities
morphospecies
biological species
hybridization
asexual reproduction
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134
Q

discontinuities

A

breaks between species (ex. morphology)

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135
Q

multiple species concepts

A

many definitions of species

the 2 we will focus on are biological species concept (BSC), morphological species concept

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136
Q

BSC

A

depends on sexual breeding, must be able to interbreed, hard to test, depends on species exhibiting sympatry
discontinuity- reproductive isolation

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137
Q

sympatry

A

species that occur in same geographic area

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138
Q

why species concept can be hard to test

A

if they don’t come together naturally there is no way of knowing if they naturally mate- bringing them together in the lab is artificial

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139
Q

morphospecies

A

different species should look different

domestic dogs- haven’t speciated

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140
Q

sibling species

A

different species that look identical

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141
Q

sibling species example

A

Hyla versicolor- tetraploid (gray tree frog)

Hyla chrysoscelis- diploid (Cope’s gray tree frog)

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142
Q

tetraploid

A

Triploid/tetraploid chromosomes are polyploidy
Polyploid organisms are those containing more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (Eukaryotes) are diploid, one set inherited from each parent.

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143
Q

polyphyletic

A

does not include the common ancestor of all members of the taxon

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144
Q

paraphyletic

A

includes the most recent common ancestor, but not all of its descendents

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145
Q

species is used to

A

describe groups that we recognize

describe what the animals themselves recognize

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146
Q

stable hybrid zone

A

ranges of 2 species come together, where they meet there is a zone that consists of hybrids
hybrids usually not sterile but may be less fit

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147
Q

hybrid example

A

manitoba toads- meet in East manitoba, zone where there are hybrids (separate species)
yellow-rumped warbler (sub-species)
gray wolf/eastern wolf/coyote/red wolf/dogs
European water frogs

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148
Q

incipient speciation

A

evolutionary process in which new species form but are still capable of interbreeding; can be the first part of the larger process of speciation

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149
Q

yellow-dumped warbler hybrids

A

Audubon’s warbler / Myrtle warbler
100km hybrid zone
graphs show different traits within/outside of hybrid zone

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150
Q

introgression

A

(introgressive hybridization), movement of a gene (gene flow) from one species into the gene pool of another by repeated backcrossing of an interspecific hybrid with one of its parent species

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151
Q

3 known categories of asexual reproduction in vertebrates

A

recall that BSC requires sexual breeding
hybridogenesis
gynogenesis
parthogenesis

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152
Q

hemiclonal

A

half of females genome is passed on clonally

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153
Q

clonal

A

all of females genome is passed on clonally

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154
Q

hybridogenesis

A

male mates with female but males genetic contribution is discarded at mitosis
egg is fertilized but genetic info. not passed on in next generation

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155
Q

gynogenesis

A

mates with male but sperm are not used (salamanders, some fish)
diploid egg, sperm stimulates reproduction but doesn’t fertilize
female relies on sperm from heterospecific males to initiate embryogenesis

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156
Q

parthenogenesis

A

males not used at all, diploid, unfertilized egg (clonal)

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157
Q

most vertebrates are

A

bisexual- normal sexual reproduction

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158
Q

European water frogs hemiclonal hybridogenesis

A

Rana ridibunda x R. lessonae = R. esculenta
R. esculenta x R. lessonae = R. esculenta
R. esculenta x R. esculenta = R. ridibunda
R. esculenta x R. ridibunda = R. ridibunda
R. esculenta maintains itself by mating with parent species- at meiosis discards lessonae part of genome and reconstitutes itself

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159
Q

usually inviable offspring

A

R. esculenta x R. esculenta = R. ridibunda

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160
Q

origin of R. esculenta

A

R. ridibunda x R. lessonae = R.esculenta

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161
Q

why do males mate with female gynogens (gynogenesis)

A

selection should favor males that gynogenesis

sexual females increase their preference for males whom they observe consorting with female gynogens

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162
Q

elements of speciation

A

occur in variable orders/rates/ranges/time, process of species formation, multiplication of species, complex process that involves multiple phenomena
elements: reproductive isolation, genetic divergence, phenotypic divergence

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163
Q

Bulloch’s Oriole and Blatimore Oriole

A

two morphologically distinct species, but they are interfertile
two morphospecies, but one or two biological species?

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164
Q

interfertile

A

capable of interbreeding

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165
Q

cryptic species

A

morphologically similar, genetically distinct, incapable of interbreeding

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166
Q

cryptic species example

A

African Savanna Elephant, African Forest Elephant

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167
Q

speciation can occur

A

allopatrically, parapatrically/peripatrically, or sympatrically

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168
Q

allopatric speciation

A

geographically separate

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169
Q

parapatric speciation

A

geographically adjacent

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170
Q

sympatric speciation

A

geographically coincident (same area)

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171
Q

non-selective speciation

A

‘by accident’- random drift in small founding populations

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172
Q

natural selection speciation

A

mutation-order speciation

ecological speciation

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173
Q

ecological speciation

A

evolution of reproductive isolation between populations by divergent natural selection arising from differences between ecological environments
indirect or direct

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174
Q

indirect ecological speciation

A

by-product speciation

reproductive isolation occurs as an incidental by-product of adaptation to different environments

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175
Q

direct ecological speciation

A

selection directly favours reproductive isolation

ex. if hybrids are less viable

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176
Q

allopatric (geographic) speciation

A

vicariant event- splitting events/barriers cause species to adapt independently to conditions (ex. glaciation)
dispersal- disperse to new area (ex. island), may lead to founder effect (ex. galapagos finches)

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177
Q

Possible outcomes of secondary contact after long periods of separation

A

partial/complete reproductive isolation- basically separate species
hybrid zones
complete introgression- interbreed as if never separated
selection for reproductive isolation- behavioural differences

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178
Q

lentic

A

standing water

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179
Q

lotic

A

running water

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180
Q

ecological speciation changes in fishes

A 
marine-freshwater
physio-chemical transitions
lotic-lentic transitions
discrete river habitat
water depth
benthic-open water 
benthic substrate shifts
piscivory
durophagy
intrinsic incompatibilities
divergent sexual selection
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181
Q

piscivory

A

eating of fish

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182
Q

durophagy

A

eating behavior of animals that consume hard-shelled or exoskeleton bearing organisms, such as corals, shelled mollusks, or crabs

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183
Q

increasing potential for gene flow in absence of differentiation

A

decreasing spatial scale

allopatric– parapatric– sympatric

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184
Q

ecological speciation example

A

repeated parallel speciation in endependent populations of sticklebacks, regulation in gene due to reproductive isolation
deep water- prominent spine, predator protection
shallow water- absence of fin, harder for insect larvae to attach

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185
Q

Replicated (parallel) ecological speciation in lizards

A

habitat matching- different species show the same coloration changes to match light/dark soil habitats

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186
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

little net evolutionary change for most of geological history, remaining in an extended state called stasis, disrupted by abrupt change

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187
Q

phyletic gradualism

A

speciation is slow, uniform and gradual

When evolution occurs it is usually by the steady transformation of a whole species into a new one

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188
Q

microevolution

A

microphylogeny, microecology
change over short time and small spatial scale
ex. population genetics, shifts in color patterns, polumorphisms

189
Q

macroevolution

A

historical ecology, macroecology
change over long time scales and large spatial scales
taxonomic and transformational implications- major changes in body form

190
Q

Historical Ecology

A

taxic– speciation, cospeciation

transformational- adaptation, coadaptation

191
Q

macroevolutionary phenomena

A 
origin of new structures
discontinuities in 'adaptive space'
rates of evolution
causes and natures of radiations
causes and natures of mass extinctions
192
Q

fundamental to biology

A

phylogeny, taxonomy, systematics

193
Q

why phylogeny/taxonomy/systematics are important in a world with decreasing biodiversity

A

different conservational issue depending on whether or not separate species

194
Q

BC spotted frog

A

found to be 2 species; 1 restricted to coastal Oregon, BC; new species is very restricted and need immediate conservation help

195
Q

Tuatara Sphenodon (lizard) endemic to NZ

A

one species found to be two, separate conservation plans had to be made

196
Q

folk taxonomy

A

local and simple
classifying animals based on known plants, local
used in everyday language- ‘bugs’ ‘shrubs’

197
Q

world exploration

A

disruption to local order

198
Q

Linnaeus

A

1700s, Systema Naturae binominal system
subjective, based on intuition, experience, ‘umwelt’, mix of art and science
species names have 2 parts, first subjective system

199
Q

evolutionary taxonomists

A

1800s, influenced by Darwin
classification should reflect evolutionary relationships
shift in point of view but not methods
a species is what a good taxonomist says it is

200
Q

making taxonomy a science

A

1950s, injecting objectivity

201
Q

numerical taxonomy

A

unweighted characters, quantitative

take as many characters as can, try to find similarities to make unbiased connections

202
Q

molecular taxonomy

A

proteins, RNA, DNA, comparison of apples and oranges
differences between species in relation to proteins and DNA
first time characters could be compared in vastly different organisms

203
Q

Cladistic taxonomy

A

phylogenetic taxonomy
shared evolutionary novelties
not all traits are useful, some are more important than others- shared derived traits

204
Q

fungi are closely related

A

to animals (more than to plants)

205
Q

classification

A

ordering of organisms into sets based on relationships

relationships defined in various ways- phylogeny, resemblance

206
Q

identification

A

allocation of previously unidentified specimens to the correct sets, as in ‘keying’

207
Q

taxonomy

A

the theoretical study of classification, including principles and procedures (rules)

208
Q

taxon

A

general term for any taxonomic group of any rank

209
Q

systematics

A

study of diversity and interrelationships of organisms, causes and origins of relationships including zoogeography
broader than taxonomy

210
Q

nomenclature

A

very narrow term, having to do with actual naming

211
Q

types of classification

A

cross-tabulation
linearly ordered list- alphabetical, numerical (not a good classification, just a list)
hierarchy- by some criterion of similarity

212
Q

cross-tabulation

A

take 2 traits and compare them in 2x2 grid

ex. endothermy/ectothermy, eyes/no eyes

213
Q

biological classifications

A

hierarchical - groups nested within groups
based on similarity- morphological, genetic
usually reflect evolutionary relationships

214
Q

taxon ranks in Linnean classification system

A

Kingdom- Phylum- Subphylum- Class- Subclass- Order- Suborder- Family- Genus- Species (binomen)- Subspecies (trainmen)

215
Q

plural of taxon

A

taxa

216
Q

order names end in

A

a
Order Squamata - not the Squamata order
or we can talk about squamates, or squamate reptiles

217
Q

family names end in

A

idea
Family Viparidae- not the Viperidae family
or “viperirds” or “viperid snakes”

218
Q

subfamily names end in

A

inae
Subfamily Viperinae
or “viperines” or “viperine snakes”

219
Q

nomenclature rules are found

A

in International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

220
Q

kinds of similarity

A 
similar origin (developmental or evolutionary)
similar function
similar structure
221
Q

similarity in origin example

A

articulation of jaw in mammals- squamosal and dentary

in all tetrapods except mammals- articular and quadrate

222
Q

articular and quadrate in mammals

A

middle ear- different fn and structure but similar origin
articular = malleus
quadrate = incus

223
Q

middle ear ossicles

A

3 in mammals- incus, malleus, stapes

1 in other tetrapods- stapes (trace back to fish)

224
Q

similarity in structure example

A

3 different kinds of wings- bird, pterosaur, bat
forelimbs of tetrapods- similar features; ulna, radius, humerus
parts shaped differently with same basic elements

225
Q

similarity in function example

A

noise-making in snakes- rattling, tail-vibrating, hissing, stridulation, cloacal popping

226
Q

rattling in snakes

A

Crotalus: series of interlocking segments make up rattle, special shaker muscle vibrates at rapid rate for long time,
add segments to rattle every time they shed their skin, babies only have one segment and can’t rattle

227
Q

tail-vibrating and hissing in snakes

A

Pituophis: shake tail to make noise in dry leaves (confused with rattlers)
specialized keel increases loudness of hissing (~10 decibels higher with keel- decibels are log scale)

228
Q

stridulation in snakes

A

Echis: (scale-rubbing) specialized scale on side of body, move body segments against each other to make noise

229
Q

cloacal popping

A

Micruroides, Gyalopion: force air out of cloacal (opening for intestine, reproductive, urinary tract) and make a popping noise

230
Q

kinds of similarity

A

homology
homoplasy
analogy

231
Q

homoplasy

A

“false” evolutionary resemblance
parallelism, convergence, reversal, loss, mimicry
can confound construction of phylogenies
but can be used to make inferences about adaptation

232
Q

“false” evolutionary resemblance

A

phenotypic similarities mislead us to relationship

233
Q

reversal

A

loss of trait back to original state

234
Q

confound construction of phylogenies

A

sorting out homoplasies from other similarities is key

235
Q

Convergent evolution (this is the term we will use)

A

convergence- evolution of similar phenotypic features independently in different lineages, usually from different features and developmental pathways

236
Q

Parallel evolution

A

parallelism- evolution of similar/identical features independently in related lineages, usually based on similar modification of the same developmental pathways

237
Q

convergence in African Cichlids

A

fish in two different lakes look similar- mimic each other

fish in same lake look different but are more similar to each other than to fish in other lake

238
Q

convergence in mammals

A 
similar body forms through time
many marsupials look similar to eutherians (placentals)
mole-- marsupial mole
flying squirrel-- sugar glider
woodchuck-- wombat
239
Q

convergence of echolocation

A

different kinds of echolocation arise independently multiple times (bats, dolphins)

240
Q

homology

A

“true” evolutionary resemblance, a relative term
similarity of origin is important, to some extent
taxic or transformational

241
Q

homology is determined from

A

comparative anatomy, fossil record, developmental biology, distribution of character states among taxa (using parsimony)

242
Q

reptile to mammal transformation homology

A

jaw joint to middle ear ossicle

polarity of the trait = direction of change over time

243
Q

taxic homology

A

shared evolutionary novelties that help define taxa

244
Q

tetrapod wings

A

show how the level of analysis changes the definition, relative terms
homologous as tetrapod limbs
homoplasious as wings (bird, pterosaur, bat all independently derived wings)

245
Q

cladistics

A

phylogenetic systematics

grouped based on 1+ shared unique characteristics from the group’s LCA

246
Q

monophyletic group

A

ancestor plus all descendants

247
Q

paraphyletic group

A

monophyletic group with some descendants missing

ex. “reptiles” birds missing, would be a correct taxonomic group if we included birds

248
Q

polyphyletic group

A

group composed of members separated by two or more ancestors
usually constructed by homoplasies

249
Q

homoplasy

A

character shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor

250
Q

plesiomorphies

A

ancestral, ‘primitive’ traits

251
Q

apomorphies

A

derived, ‘advanced’ traits

252
Q

symplesiomorphy

A

shared ancestral trait

253
Q

synapomorphy

A

shared derived trait

254
Q

we want to construct phylogenies with only

A

synapomorphies (shared derived traits), only clades

ex. all vertebrates have hearts does not set them apart from other taxon

255
Q

grade vs clade

A

grade- group of species united by morphological/ physiological traits, gives rise to another group differing from ancestral condition- not considered part of the ancestral group, same grade can be in different clades
ancestral group- not phylogenetically complete, doesn’t form a clade, represents a paraphyletic taxon

256
Q

Linnaean classification of Vertebrates

A 
Class Chondrichthyes- sharks, rays
Class Osteichthyes*- bony fish
Class Amphibia- lissamphibians
Class Reptilia*- reptiles
Class Aves- birds
Class Mammalia- mammals
* paraphyletic groups
257
Q

anagenesis

A

change in form within a lineage

258
Q

cladogenesis

A

splitting events

259
Q

grades =

A

paraphyly, group which does not include all its descendents

“fish” and “birds” are paraphyletic

260
Q

clades =

A

monophyly, taxon (group of organisms) which forms a clade, meaning that it consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants

261
Q

grades can be attributable to

A

synapomorphy- monophyletic groups (grade = clade, mammals are a grade and a clade)
symplesiomorphy- paraphyletic groups (reptile, fish)
convergence- polyphyletic

262
Q

symplesiomorphies

A

characters shared by everybody, everybody’s got these traits so they don’t help characterize one group

263
Q

synapomorphies

A

unique traits that maybe can be used to categorize one group vs. another

264
Q

autapomorphies

A

derived traits that are unique to a particular taxon

265
Q

each person is, in certain respects like all other people, like some other people, and like no other person

A

all other people- symplesiomorphies
some other people- synapomorphies
no other people- autapomorphies

266
Q

in phylogeny we are trying to recognize sister taxa

A

a synapomorphy is present only in 2 sister-taxa and is the inherited autapomorphky from their LCA. ID’ing a character as a synapomorphy is essential for recognizing sister taxa

267
Q

phylogenetic systematics

A

taxa (clades) defined by shared derived traits only
evolutionary relationship (phylogeny) among taxa represented by a branching diagram (cladogram)
sister clades receive equal rank (no taxon labels)
all taxa are monophyletic
groups defined by shared ancestral traits have no taxonomic value (may be important in other ways)

268
Q

dichotomous branching

A

each branch is a sister group

269
Q

fully resolved phylogeny

A

each point has only two branches

>2 - polytomy

270
Q

phylogenetically defined taxa are always

A

monophyletic

taxon = monophyletic group = lineage = clade

271
Q

groups defined by shared ancestral traits have no taxonomic value (may be important in other ways)

A

ectotherms- not a natural grouping, has eco-physiological meaning

272
Q

fossil problem

A 
incomplete specimens
incomplete record through time
mostly hard parts, few soft tissues
no molecular data
maybe unique derived traits that we can not see
273
Q

types of clades

A

node-based
stem-based
apomorphy-based

274
Q

node-based

A

crown group
based on extant forms (more information)
just below node of sister group

275
Q

stem-based

A

total group
consists of crown group + extinct forms (stem) that are part of the ancestral lineage of crown group
just above node below sister group

276
Q

apomorphy based

A

based on first known appearance of a particular derived trait
ex. first appearance of limbs in fossil record
somewhere in between sister group node and node below

277
Q

crown group defined

A

by extant groups but can contain extinct groups

278
Q

why phylogeny is more useful than Linnean system

A

more complete and informative classification
phylogeny recoverable from taxonomy and vice versa
can use a list to create cladogram (isomorphic, equal rank get equal indentation)

279
Q

phylogeny limitations

A

polarity and/or homology of many traits is not unambiguously established (whats the direction of change)
evidence is evidence not proof, many disagreements on ‘correct’ phylogeny (still much debate, where do turtles go)
molecules vs. morphology
everything is provisional

280
Q

molecules vs. morphology

A

modern phylogenies usually derived from molecular data
we then can map other traits onto the phylogeny and interpret them (ex. convergences)
mostly, now, start with molecular phylogeny and then map morphological

281
Q

ingroup

A

group of taxa whose relationships we want to resolve

282
Q

outgroup

A

comparison taxon closely related to the taxa of interest

sometimes 2 or more outgroup taxa are used, one more closely related and one more distantly related

283
Q

outgroups used to determine

A

how the cladogram should be rooted

ex. help determine polarity (direction) of changes in traits

284
Q

calibrating phylogeny so branch lengths give estimate of time since separation

A

fossil record
base phylogeny on genes and calibrate via molecular clock
use ancient DNA

285
Q

ghost lineage

A

incomplete history, missing fossil record implied by sister group

286
Q

NGS

A

next-generation DNA sequencing (paleogenomics)
some contamination problems
can bring evidence on questions such as time since divergence
can sequence hundreds of thousands of years back
can give an idea of process rather than just pattern

287
Q

Phylogeny

A 
evolutionary chronicle
branched chronological series of character state changes along lineages (what)
clear methodology (cladistics)
288
Q

Genealogy

A

historical narrative
casual statements, explanation, interpretations, evolutionary scenarios (how and why)
no clear methodology- gaps between taxa filled by fossils, extant taxa, imagination, intuition

289
Q

the comparative method

A

using comparisons across species that have evolved independently

290
Q

why should we care about systematics

A

systematics are fundamental to biology and can tell us alot

291
Q

problems comparing characteristics

A

shared history- lineage specific effects (non independence)

phylogenetic effects/differences- history matters

292
Q

independent comparison method for 2 characters in a single phylogeny

A

sister taxa are averaged to give node value
differences are taken between sister taxa for d1 and d2
differences are taken between nodes d3
differences compared for characters and then the 2 characters differences are plotted against each other

293
Q

number of rooted, bifurcating, labeled trees for n species

A

(2n-3)! / (2^n-2)(n-2)!

294
Q

problems constructing phylogenies

A

large number of possible tree topologies (15 trees for n=4)
different analytical methods give different answers
numerous different trees for same group
fossil forms incomplete

295
Q

analytical methods of phylogeny

A 
parsimony and variants 
compatibility (character "cliques")
distance matrix methods
likelihood methods
others, all quantitative
296
Q

consensus tree

A

constructed when we have 2 or more different trees for the same group

297
Q

parsimony

A

Occam’s Razor
the simplest, most plausible hypothesis is the obvious place to start
if you hear hoofbeats, think horses not zebras
cladogram w/ fewest evolutionary steps is best starting hypothesis

298
Q

inferring characters in poorly known taxa

A

modern analogues

extant phylogenetic bracket

299
Q

extant phylogenetic bracket

A

if a character is exhibited by bracketing extant species, then most likely exhibited by internal branches (extinct species)
ex. parental care seen in crocodilians and birds, so probably in the dinosaurs ‘in between’
may have evolved independently but less parsimonious- more evolutionary steps

300
Q

endothermy in dinosaurs?

A

crocodilians- 4 different dinosaurs- birds
we know that crocodilians are not endothermic, birds are
there are 5 equally parsimonious trees to explain the evolution of endothermy in to birds, so we can’t infer where it evolved

301
Q

non-therian synapsids

A

all synapsids other than mammals

302
Q

nocturnality in non-therian synapsids

A

study finds synapsids were nocturnal ancestrally

carnivores are predominantly nocturnal or cathemeral

303
Q

cathemeral

A

irregularly active at any time of night or day, according to prevailing circumstances

304
Q

myrmecophagy

A

feeding behavior defined by the consumption of termites or ants

305
Q

convergence example

A

myrmecophagy in Dendrobatids (frogs)
echolocation in bats and dolphins
flightlessness in birds
endothermy in Scombroidean Fishes

306
Q

species that overlap geographically are sister taxa

A

sympatric speciation

307
Q

sister species do not overlap geographically

A

allopatric speciation

308
Q

sister species do not overlap and the range of one is smaller than the range of the other

A

peripatric speciation

309
Q

polymorphism

A

occurrence together in same habitat of 2 or more discontinuous forms, or “phases”, of a species in proportions that the rarest of them cannot be maintained merely by recurrent mutation (genetically determined variants)

310
Q

polyphenism

A

phenomenon where two or more distinct phenotypes are produced by the same genotype
Multiple phenotypes in population (polymorphic), not based on genotype
phenotypic variation induced by an environmental cue
form of phenotypic plasticity

311
Q

example of polyphenism

A

amphibian larvae – shifts in morphological phenotype
due to predators, competitors, and prey
cannibalism is induced when high density of conspecifics- leads to larger mouth and teeth

312
Q

why nervous system is useful in phylogenetic research

A

lots of data to compare

lots of genetic markers

313
Q

origin of chordates, old system and new system

A

old- vertebrates sister group to Amphioxus

new system- Vertebrates sister group to Tunicates

314
Q

why were tunicates ‘moved’ in the phylogeny?

A

found to have a number of fast-evolving genes
very derived, even though they appear basal
no longer a kew organism in understanding

315
Q

mosaic development

A

something happened early in tunicate development that allowed them to rapidly evolve in a different direction

316
Q

serial mesoderm (segmented) evolution

A

‘hairy’ gene in Arthropods and Annelids
homolog of ‘hairy’ in chordates
~same gene, evolved once

317
Q

chordate characters

A 
pharyngeal gill slits
dorsal nerve cord
segmental muscles/mesoderm
notochord
postanal tail
318
Q

pharyngeal gill slits

A

probably first to evolve, seen in hemichordates and maybe echinoderms
amphioxus doesn’t use as gills- filters food
large surface area for gas exchange

319
Q

segmental muscles/mesoderm

A

serial myotoes/somites
other inverts. typically circular/longitudinal muscles
in vertebrates only around guts

320
Q

postanal tail

A

anus not terminal, body extends over primary anus to form tail, new anus is formed (non-terminally)

321
Q

dorsal nerve cord

A

ventral in proterostome

evolves separately in new place OR inversion, mouth migration (moves down in chordates)

322
Q

mouth formation

A

delayed, area btw mouth and nerve cord expands
ventral mouth is a derived character– lead to face evolution
as mouth ‘moves’ pituatary ‘chases’ it- moves to oral cavity, then up to underside of nerve cord

323
Q

model organisms for developmental biology of vertebrates

A

zebrafish, mouse, chick, frog

324
Q

why frog?

A

easy to obtain large # of eggs, embryogenesis occurs outside body- eggs can be manipulated

325
Q

frog cell cycle

A

rapid cell cycle- no G1, G2– increases # of cells in embryo (large cell #)
no zygotic transcription

326
Q

blastula parts

A 
animal pole (AP)- top, blastocoel, superficial cells
Vegetal pole- cells more dense, comprise gut structures
327
Q

gastrulation

A

series of coordinated cell rearrangements leading to germ layers
equatorial region forms dorsal blastopore lip- bottle cells ‘crawl’ and involute- displaces blastoceal

328
Q

germ layers

A

ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm

329
Q

ectoderm

A

skin, nervous system

330
Q

mesoderm

A

muscle, bone

331
Q

endoderm

A

gut

332
Q

results of gastrulation

A

endoderm cells were on outside before gastrulation
archenteron formed
AP moved equatorial
blastopore formed (future anus)

333
Q

protostome gastrulation

A

starts at mouth

334
Q

deuterostome gastrulation

A

starts at anus

335
Q

upon completion of gastrulation

A

3 germ layers are evident and layered (endo, meso, ecto)
A-P and dorsal-ventral poles established
preliminary notochord present, terminating in dorsal blastopore lip

336
Q

next stage after gastrulation

A

neurulation - dorsal ectoderm becomes CNS (central nervous system)

337
Q

mammalian, chick embryo proper

A

flat sheet of cells, epiblast, prior to gastrulation

cells migrate through primitive groove to give rise to 3 germ layers

338
Q

neural plate stage

A

neural tube formation
neuroectoderm– neural groove formation– neural fold– neural tube pinches off– neural crest cells disperse and notochord forms– epidermis on top
gives rise to brain and spinal cord

339
Q

neural crest

A

one of defining features of vertebrates- novel

migrate to different regions- even non neural cells

340
Q

neural crest derivatives

A 
PNS- peripheral nervous system
Endocrine and paraendocrine derivatives
pigment cells
facial cartilage and bone
connective tissue
341
Q

sometimes referred to as the 4th germ layer

A

neural crest

distinguishes vertebrates from other chordates

342
Q

a9.49 cell

A

always gives rise to pigment- overexpression of ‘twist’ = loss of melanocyte– migration is similar to neural crest cell (may be a precursor)

343
Q

closure of neural tube

A

—neurula stage- formation of somites, tailed, expansion of forebrain, gill area
failure of closure = spina bifida (.7/1000 births, folic acid deficiency)

344
Q

notochord remnants

A

retained in lancelet, larval tunicate

supports vertebrae in mammals

345
Q

notochord implicated in different cell type generation

A

signals ectoderm to form CNS
implicated in different cell type generation
move/remove notochord- induce cell diversity in dorsal part of neural tube, in a graded manner (1 22 1)

346
Q

shh

A

sonic hedgehog secreting cells- gradient directs TF expression- 3TF = 5 domains
gradient of morphogen- cells respond to density = expression of different genes
one signalling factor gives rise to multiple factors

347
Q

tadpole with yellow in head

A

remnants of yolk, starts feeding after thats gone

348
Q

coqui

A

‘direct developers’
hatch as live frogs- no larval stage
much larger embryo and yolk, quicker maturation, nutritional endoderm, less reliant on water (eggs can be laid on land)
parallel evolution with amniotes

349
Q

frog metamorphosis controlled by

A

thyroid hormone, T3 tri-iodothyrodine

350
Q

nutritional endoderm

A

novel cell type, single cell containing yolk, doesn’t integrate into frog, connected for feeding, similar to amniote

351
Q

allantois

A

stores waste

gas exchange

352
Q

chorion

A

outer most membrane
gas exchange
mammals = placenta

353
Q

polyembryony

A

more than one embryo from one egg
armadillos always give rise to 4 identical twins, all share same amnion and chorion (very rare in humans- 1% of human twins)

354
Q

to make a phylogenetic tree start with

A

homologous DNA sequences that you have collected in the lab or downloaded from a database search
align sequences

355
Q

BLAST

A

basic local alignment search tool - takes query, finds pairwise match, ‘hit’

356
Q

Clustal W

A

gives multiple sequence alignments- doesn’t discriminate between non-homologous sequences- this is up to the biologist

357
Q

correctly aligned, non-homologous

A

ACCTCATC

C____T

358
Q

used to manipulate Clustal W results

A

BioEdit

359
Q

distance matrix

A

how many differences between sequences
start with columns = sites, rows = sequences, count how many differences between sequences
make new grid, ex. sequences 234 vs. 123 with # differences

360
Q

distance tree

A

tree branches add up to differences, sized based on differences
works best if you have same amount of data for each sequence- less similarities if comparing a short sequence- (not b/c the similarities don’t exist)

361
Q

if you don’t have same amount of data for each sequence

A

use p-distances (proportions)

362
Q

problems with number of differences/p-distances

A

unobserved mutations
A–G–T = 2 substitutions but only 1 is observed
A–G–A = 2 substitutions, none are observed
what we see is not always the whole story

363
Q

attempt to correct for unobserved mutations

A

Jukes and Cantor formula

364
Q

Jukes and Cantor

A

distantly related sequences likely to have experienced more substitutions than visible
mutations are more likely to occur at the same place given a large number of mutations

365
Q

without Jukes and Cantor correction p-distance over time graph

A

asymptotes

366
Q

Jukes and Cantor formula

A

gets rid of asymptote
distance = -(3/4)ln(1-(4/3)p)
p = proportion of changed sites, p-distance

367
Q

if p= 0.18, JC distance =

A

0.206

368
Q

influence of JC formula

A

distance btw similar sequences increases very little
distance btw distant sequences increases more
increases branch lengths in distant sequences

369
Q

Actinopterygii

A

almost all fish

370
Q

Sarcopterygii

A

lungfish, coelocanth

forgs, reptiles, mammals,..

371
Q

relationship btw lungfish, lobe-fin, tetrapod, ray-fin

A

LF and Coelocanth (lobe fin) sister taxa
LF, C and T sister taxa
LF, C, T and RFF sister taxa

372
Q

exons and introns

A

exons encode a.a.’s, introns dont
changes in interns less likely to have effect on proteins
we compare exons- more likely to be similar

373
Q

exon vs. intron graph

A

more distance between families than within

more distance in introns (x-axis) then exons (y-axis)

374
Q

red pandas

A

sister group of raccoons, badger, otter

more closely related to seals and sea lions than other bears

375
Q

giants panda

A

at the base of the bear tree

other bears are more closely related to one another than to giant pandas

376
Q

heyenas

A

are much more closely related to cats than to dogs

377
Q

OLD convergence and parallelism

A

C- evolution of similar traits in unrelated taxa

P- evolution of similar traits in closely related taxa

378
Q

NEW convergence and parallelism

A

C- evolution of similar traits in different lineages, involving different developmental pathways
P- evolution of similar traits in related lineages, involving same developmental pathways

379
Q

new convergence and parallelism definitions based on

A

closeness of relatedness and molecular pathway
but don’t really need to say anything about relationship
C- results from different genetic mechanisms

380
Q

toothlessness evolution

A

same genes are involved- parallelism

if we look at the relationships it would be convergence

381
Q

evolution of body elongation

A

in sister taxa- same mechanism (increasing size of vertebrae) - parallelism
in more distantly related species- different mechanism (increasing # of vertebrae) - convergence

382
Q

Pattern

A

the “what”?
ex. phylogeny
simple description of what we see

383
Q

Process

A

the “how”?
genetic development/mechanism
process by which pattern arose
ex. giraffes have long necks b/c they expand size of vertebrae
and the “why”?
adaptive/selective scenario
assumed to be for feeding at higher levels

384
Q

The integrated organism

A

diverse physiological processes all affect each other (ability, rate) one imposes trade-off on another
ex. water absorption through skin affects gas loss through skin, heat exchange, etc.

385
Q

fluxes of mass

A

respiratory gases, organic and inorganic substances, water

386
Q

fluxes of energy

A

heat, charge, potential energy

387
Q

physiologic trade-off in Darwin’s finches

A

negative trade-off btw velocity and bite force- 2 separate muscles, can’t maximize both at the same time

388
Q

endothermy trade-off

A

can live in cold parts of the world

must eat all the time to conserve thermoregulation processes

389
Q

interacting organ systems of vertebrates

A

skin, skeleto-muscular, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, digestive, excretory, circulatory
all interacting

390
Q

major transitions in evolutionary history of vertebrates

A 
water to land (origin of tetrapods)
land to water (origin of whales)
origin of amniotes
ectothermy-endothermy
evolution of flight (origin of birds)
origin of mammals
origin of turtles
origin of snakes
all involve multiple systems at once
391
Q

adaptations in the transition between land and water

A 
density/viscosity changes - locomotion and support
O2/CO2 content - gas exchange
thermal capacity - thermoregulation
refractive index - visual system
velocity of sound - hearing apparatus'
392
Q

evolution of endothermy

A 
insulation - controlling heat loss/gain
circulatory system
respiratory system (endo. high O2 demand)
metabolic rate
musculoskeletal system
393
Q

evolution of birds

A 
endothermy
flight 
wings
pneumatic bones (air filled bones)
feathers
rhamphotheca (bill)
394
Q

evolution of snakes

A 
elongation of body
reduction/loss of limbs
repackaging of internal anatomy (long and skinny)
modified locomotion
modified feeding apparatus
395
Q

correlated progression assumptions

A

incremental changes
natural selection
systems evolve in parallel
–traits can only change by one unit at a time, can be no more than one unit different than connecting traits, no obvious starting point

396
Q

incremental changes in correlated progression

A

characters are highly integrated with each other, no one can evolve by more than a small amount at a time, without losing functional integration within organism as a whole
ex. can’t just grow a leg and become terrestrial

397
Q

natural selection in correlated progression

A

natural selection tests the fitness of an organism as a whole, not any individual characteristics
ex. fitness of leg is not the issue, fitness of the organism is

398
Q

systems evolve in parallel, correlated progression

A

all structures and functions evolve by respective sequences of small steps in loose correlation with each other to maintain continuous functional integration

399
Q

your inner fish

A

all the parts mammals have are modified parts from fish ancestors
no parts are new parts, history matters

400
Q

co-option

A

new use for old parts

401
Q

gill arches

A

co-opted for other functions
arches 1-4 — jaws, ears, larynx, throat
bones, muscles, nerves, arteries develop inside these gill arches

402
Q

every bone in our head can be traced to

A

plates, blocks, and rods (from fish)
plates- dermatocranium
blocks- chondrocranium
rods- splanchonocranium (jaws)

403
Q

distinguishing feature of mammals (bone)

A

lower jaw only one bone- dentary

404
Q

macroevolution

A

changes above or at a species level (speciation)
organisms are highly integrated
constrained by ancestral history- if we could build a new one it would be much different

405
Q

linking micro and macroevolution

A 
phenotypic plasticity- variation within individual species raw material for evolution of new species
developmental biology (evo-devo)
406
Q

graph of phenotypic plasticity in reaction norm

A

phenotype vs. environment is a linear graph where phenotype is able to vary with different environments

407
Q

genetic assimilation

A

occupying on enviro.—unexpressed capacity for plasticity– enviro. changes– rxn norm allows population to persist– novel phenotype, no initial genetic change– phenotype becomes fixed– rxn norm loses plasticity

408
Q

why reaction norm may lose plasticity

A

drift, cost associated w/ maintaining plasticity when it is not favoured by natural selection- old environment no longer favoured

409
Q

macroevolutionary phenomena

A 
origin of new structures
discontinuities in "adaptive space"
rates of evolution
causes and natures of radiation
causes and natures of mass extinctions
410
Q

therapsids

A

mammal like reptiles

411
Q

cause and nature of radiation example, therapsids

A

different lineages, showing increasingly mammalian characteristics, parallel changes in lineages

412
Q

phylogenetic baggage

A

we are constrained by our evolution

413
Q

exaptation

A

and the related term co-option describe a shift in function of a traits evolution
ex. trait can evolve because it served 1 function, but comes to serve another

414
Q

preadaptation

A

large change in function is accomplished with little change in structure

415
Q

mammals and vertebrae

A

7 cervical vertebrae almost always in mammals

exception- manatees have 6/7; sloths have recruited thoracic vertebrae to lengthen neck

416
Q

why are mammals constricted to 7 cervical vertebrae?

A

morphological integration with other body parts, evo-devo- environmental biology evolved along with neck
each vertebra is restricted by a somite that produces myoblasts
C3-C5 migrated further back in body, responsible for formation of diaphragm
C6-C7 associated with muscles in shoulder area

417
Q

largest known mammal necks

A

increase size of vertebrae not number (giraffe)

418
Q

Annolis inovations

A

lizard- ‘pave the way’ for future evolutions
feet w/ hooks for climbing vertical surfaces- success of the species
key innovations can only really be determined to be key in hind sight

419
Q

adaptation

A

feature that performs a specific function, arises as a result of selection

420
Q

exaptation

A

one function taking over old function

new use will arise for a structure

421
Q

in trade-offs be aware of

A

other variables that affect trade-offs

do simple correlation value and semipartial correlation values change

422
Q

scaling relationships

A

how different characteristics are related to body size

423
Q

allometry

A

statistical shape analysis in biology for differential growth rates of the parts of a living organism’s body
morphometrics, multivariate stats, homologous landmarks

424
Q

morphometrics

A

quantitative study of shape, heavily statistical

425
Q

landmarks

A

changes in position give change in shape

knowing distances between points to determine shape and convert it to data

426
Q

example of landmarks as a beneficial study

A

determining landmarks in endangered species to determine sex (M/F) for rearing eggs

427
Q

PCA

A

principle component analysis

428
Q

using landmarks in salamanders

A

2 salamanders with overlapping ranges, occurring in allopatry and sympatry
IDing landmarks on heads to determine how they differ in allopatry and sympatry

429
Q

isometric vs. allometric growth

A

Iso- no change in shape proportions of body parts- stay the same
Allo- body proportions change

430
Q

ontogenetic change in shape

A

change in shape during growth, through life

431
Q

cohort

A

born at the same time

432
Q

longitudinal study

A

following a cohort, following a group through life

433
Q

cross-sectional study

A

slice in time, harder to determine age

434
Q

measuring and testing allometry, bivariate case H_o

A

H_o : isometry, b = 1

435
Q

testing bivariate allometry, equation

A 
Y = aX^b
ln(Y) = ln(a) + b*ln(X)
436
Q

testing for area

A

H_o: b = 2

437
Q

testing for volume or mass

A

H_o: b = 3

438
Q

results of Natrix natrix allometry regression

A

M have longer tails in absolute measurements, not in relative = isometry (M are smaller than F)
2 sexes are different but that is established right at birth, no change during life time- isometric
longer for copulation, reproductive organs

439
Q

growth rate of head in humans

A

negatively allometric to body size in early life before head reaches full size
brain growth declines with age, relatively speaking

440
Q

growth rate of heart in humans

A

about isometric to body size

441
Q

proportionate difference in skull shapes of dogs and cats

A

dogs undergo greater shape changes than do cats
greater diversity of skull shapes in different breeds of dogs
dogs are tremendously allometric in skull growth
cats are close to isometric in skull growth

442
Q

chameleon characteristics

A 
highly derived- lots of apomorphves
zygodactyly (2 fingers opposing other 2)
highly projectile tongue
independently moving eyes
prehensile tail (to anchor)
443
Q

slope of log(mass) vs. log(length)

A

mass = volumetric = 3 if isometric
< 3 is negatively allometric
>3 is positively allometric

444
Q

allometric tail growth in chameleons

A

negatively allometric at posterior end, positively allometric at anterior end- prehensile tail- able to curl tightly at end because vertebrae are very small

445
Q

adaptive significance of allometry in hatchling sea turtles

A

highly vulnerable to predation, swallowed whole by dolphinfish (mahimahi)- grow wider shell (positive allometry)
after week 5, probability of lethal encounter decreases quicker with wider shells
turtles- caretta caretta, chelonia mydas, lepidochelys kempii

446
Q

intraspecific

A

same species

447
Q

interspecific

A

different species

448
Q

phylogenetic studies require

A

interspecific comparisons, representative measurements from different species

449
Q

most important evolutionary force of overall color

A

camoflauge

450
Q

patches of color

A

intraspecific signalling

451
Q

types of concealment

A

crypsis, disruptive coloration/obliterative shading, irregular marks to break up bodies outline, lighter ventral surface

452
Q

spotted species are generally found

A

arboreal (forests)

453
Q

striped species are generally found

A

grasslands (blend in to blades of grass)

454
Q

aposematism

A

prey advertise noxiousness/pugnacity

ex. skunk

455
Q

discontinuous color variation

A

white or black
albinism- likely no adaptive significance, rare
melanism- common in tropical forests (black panther)

456
Q

sexual dichromatism

A

rare in most mammals, common in primates

457
Q

physiological coloration

A

reflet/absorb sunlight for thermoregulation, enhance/reduce evaporation, reduce glare (dark eyes)

458
Q

thermoregulation coloration

A

pale species found in deserts- reflect sunlight

dark species found in tropics- enhance H2O evaporation, protect against UV

459
Q

If plasticity was acting on lizard field experiment

A

would expect immediate difference in hindlimb length

not what was seen

460
Q

problems inferring behaviour of extinct species

A

underlying assumption have to be made
have to rely on modern analogues when there may not be
behaviours exhibited were documented in crown groups, little know of stem taxa

461
Q

wing skeleton and migration

A

migratory, semi-migratory taxa have proportionally longer wing skeleton than non migratory taxa

462
Q

large crushing force with bill

A

exceeds force needed for herbivory– likely predation, scavenging

463
Q

fossilized footprints

A

many found oriented in same direction along shoreline– moving in parallel, gregarious behaviour

464
Q

modern avian behaviours exhibited by ancestor of crown birds

A

vegetative nests, extensive pre and post-hatching parental care, egg brooding

465
Q

loss of hearing represents

A

regressive evolution

466
Q

reduction of hair cell density indicates

A

involvement in high-freq hearing loss

fewer hair cells = fewer sites for signal transduction

467
Q

how selection against production of unfit hybrids can lead to differentiation

A

ex. female choice selecting for a divergence in male secondary sexual traits that facilitates species recognition

468
Q

reinforcement hypothesis

A

the ultimate explanation for a sympatric character divergence is that it reduces the probability of hybridization

469
Q

selection against hybridization in sympatry

A

overrides sexual selection for elaborate traits

Biology (15 decks)

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