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Chordates Part II Flashcards

1
Q

aquatic mammals minimum body size

A

much larger than terrestrial

set by thermoregulatory demands of aquatic environment

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2
Q

larger mass animal bones

A

allometric growth

larger bones to support the weight, larger diameter, more robust

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3
Q

SA:V changes

A

as size increase, SA:V decreases
1unit cube = 6:1
2unit cube = 12:8 (1.5)
smaller ratio = lower rate of heat loss

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4
Q

sphere SA:V

A

SA = 4πr^2
V = (4/3)πr^3
smaller SA:V than cube of equal volume
minimize ratio for given volume

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5
Q

SA:V changes with shape

A

slender objects higher SA:V

ectotherms- lower MR, small, long, slender

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6
Q

consequences of size and shape variation

A

allometric relationships
eggs per female increase with body weight
influences survivorship and reproduction

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7
Q

evo devo

A

evolution and development

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8
Q

gene duplication

A

single genes
segment of chromosome
whole chromosome
whole genome

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9
Q

pseudogene

A

DNA sequences similar to normal genes but non-functional; as defunct relatives of functional genes

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10
Q

sub-functionalization

A

pairs of genes that originate from duplication, or paralogs, take on separate functions; ancestral gene-2 functions, new gene- 1 function

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11
Q

duplication events result in

A

pseudogenation
sub-functionalization
neo-functionalization

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12
Q

neofunctionalization

A

one gene copy, or paralog, takes on a totally new function after a gene duplication event; adaptive mutation process; one of the gene copies must mutate to develop a new function

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13
Q

functional divergence

A

genes, after gene duplication, shift in function from an ancestral function

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14
Q

gene duplications =

A

bursts of diversification

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15
Q

gene duplication, vertebrate evolution

A

3 episode widespread gene(ome) duplication

origin of verts, gnathostomes, teleosts

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16
Q

HOX clusters

A

4 in vertebrates

7-8 in teleost

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17
Q

snake venom toxins

A

co-opted from pancreatic origin
expanded by gene duplication
evolved under positive selection- neo-functionalization

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18
Q

Coqui development

A

no tadpole stage
rearrangment of development program
tail resorbed before hatching
adult characters (limbs) develop directly

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19
Q

frog with no direct development

A

tail growth before limb growth- gas exchange surface

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20
Q

classic neo-Darwinian 3-stage view of origin of species

A

mutation- new variant
selection- altered frequency/fixation (‘new population’)
reproductive isolation- new species

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21
Q

altered 4-stage evolved view of origin of species

A

mutation– new gene
re-programming- new ontogeny/individual
selection– new population
reproductive isolation– new species

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22
Q

re-programming

A

developmental/embryonic/ontogenic reprogramming or repatterning

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23
Q

mechanisms of developmental reprogramming

A 
changes in developmental programs at various stages of life
heterotopy
heterochrony
heterometry
heterotypy
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24
Q

heterotopy

A

∆ location of gene expression

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25
Q

heterochrony

A

∆ timing of ≥2 processes relative to each other

  • onset, offset, rate of process
  • must be allometric
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26
Q

heterometry

A

∆ amount of gene product

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27
Q

heterotypy

A

∆ kind of gene product

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28
Q

transformation grid

A

1 species = reference

reference points relocated in derived species to reconstruct transformed grid

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29
Q

heterochronic change

A

∆ rate of development to maturity
∆ time to maturity
∆ time of onset of development
alone or combined, same or different times

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30
Q

classic neotony

A

axolotl- retains larval features (gills, fins)

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31
Q

neotony

A

paedomorphosis, retention of ontogenetic features into adulthood

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32
Q

heterochronic process graphs

A

∆ timing of development
a- ancestral, d- descendant, k- rate of shape development, a- rate of onset of growth, ß- age when offset shape is attained

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33
Q

paedomorphosis- development is truncated

A

deceleration
hyomorphosis
postdisplacement

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34
Q

paedomorphosis, deceleration

A

neotony

(-k): smaller slope, lower shape change in same time of development

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35
Q

paedomorphosis, hypomorphosis

A

(negative offset, progenesis)

same slope, shorter time period = smaller change in shape

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36
Q

paedomorphosis, postdisplacement

A

(positive onset)

onset of growth is later, offset is same, smaller change in shape

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37
Q

peramorphosis- development is extended

A

acceleration
hypermorphosis
predisplacement

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38
Q

peramorphosis, acceleration

A

(+k), steeper slope, faster change in shape over same time period, larger change in shape overall

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39
Q

peramorphosis, hypermorphosis

A

(positive offset)

start time same, end time later, longer period of development = greater change in shape

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40
Q

peramorphosis, predisplacement

A

(negative onset)

start time is earlier, end time is same, longer period of development = greater change in shape

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41
Q

shorter development time to maturity

A

miniaturization

either ∆ time to maturity or ∆ time of onset

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42
Q

∆ time to maturity

A

progenesis

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43
Q

∆ rate of development to maturity

A

neoteny

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44
Q

facultative paedomorphosis

A

environmentally induced polymorphism, results in coexistence of mature, gilled, fully aquatic paedomorphic adults and transformed, terrestrial, metamorphic adults in same population
really phenotypic plasticity

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45
Q

peramorphosis

A

individuals of a species mature past adulthood and take on hitherto unseen traits. It is the reverse of paedomorphosis

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46
Q

paedotypy

A

‘paedomorphosis’ but within a population- sometimes the organisms exhibit the change sometimes they do not

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47
Q

paedomorphosis in relation to paedotypy

A

comparison between species

descendents exhibit the change, ancestors do not

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48
Q

local heterochrony

A

changes in specific parts of body (animals are mosaics of different characters)
local terms- paedotypic somatic develop., per atypic gonadal develop.

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49
Q

why exhibit paedomorphosis

A

often determined by environment
saves energy of metamorphosis
early maturity
early reproductive output

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50
Q

amniote heart development

A

earlier development in all amniotes, not originally for endothermy, may be due to nature of egg– yolk movement, gas exchange

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51
Q

Tarsier

A

largest eye:body mass of all mammals

smaller than diapsids at initial devel.- allometric heterochrony

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52
Q

diapsid

A

(“two arches”) amniote tetrapods that developed two holes (temporal fenestra) in each side of their skulls

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53
Q

bird heterochrony

A

birds are miniature dinosaurs- pedomorphosis?
front limb:back limb larger in birds
birds have longer front limb relative to back limb
positive allometry of front limb
skull shape consistent w/ juvenile dino.

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54
Q

bird relaxed selection of front limbs

A

allowed them to ‘experiment’ with limb length- feeding?

led to wing development- exaptation

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55
Q

bird skulls

A

suggest pedomorphosis

retain juvenile shape overall and in bill, unlike dinosaur, alligator

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56
Q

bird mosaicism

A

peramorphic- bill, front limbs

paedomorphic- skull, back limb

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57
Q

ratites

A

ostrich, paedomorphic wing, skull; peramorphic hind limb, more robust skull
mosaic

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58
Q

mosaic animals

A

can’t say an animal is paedomorphic, must be more specific

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59
Q

giant anteater

A

very long snout, peramorphosis, allometric growth

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60
Q

bovid, kudu

A

very elaborate horns with large skull size

peramorphosis, allometric growth

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61
Q

peramorphosis in certopsian dinosaurs

A

bigger animal = larger differentiation from juvenile form

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62
Q

Hawaiin honeycreepers

A

peramorphosis in none, one, or both bills

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63
Q

human paedomorphosis

A

paedomorphic apes?

retention of younger developmental stages of apes

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64
Q

differential heterochrony between sexes

A

sexual dimorphism
blue boxfish: adult female is paedo. compared w/ male in body shape and color pattern
male anglerfish

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65
Q

salamander heterochrony

A

ovoviparous, viviparous

feeding much earlier in viviparous form

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66
Q

vivipary

A

development of the embryo inside the body of the mother

live birth

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67
Q

oviparous

A

animals that lay eggs, with little or no other development within the mother

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68
Q

ovoviparous

A

develop within eggs that remain within the mother’s body up until they hatch or are about to hatch

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69
Q

developmental trajectory

A

gradual, slow ontogeny or steps may be condensed for quicker ontogeny into fewer steps, then if one step is skipped you see bigger changes

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70
Q

salamander foot

A

B. occidentalis toes stop growing early, growth curve levels off, toes never project far out of pad— webbed foot, suction cup

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71
Q

timing of migration of neural crest cells

A

alters features, skin color

salamander- white = delayed crest cell migration- no color developed

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72
Q

color derivatives of neural crest cells

A

iridophores (blue?)
xanthophores (yellow)
erythrophores (orange)
melanocyte (black)

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73
Q

organ system

A

set of organs interacting to carry out major body functions

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74
Q

organ

A

body structure that integrates different tissues and carries out a specific function

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75
Q

vertebrate support/locomotion organ systems

A

skeleto-muscular system

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76
Q

vertebrate metabolism organ systems

A

respiratory system
digestive system
excretory system

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77
Q

vertebrae transport organ system

A

circulatory system

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78
Q

vertebrate reproduction organ system

A

reproductive system

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79
Q

vertebrate integration organ system

A

neuro-endocrine system (nervous system, endocrine glands)

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80
Q

vertebrate support and interaction organ

A

skin

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81
Q

homeostasis

A

maintaining stability, negative feedback

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82
Q

homeostasis feedback

A

environment ∆– physiological ∆– ∆ detected by neural receptors– info. sent along sensory pathway– integrator cells receive info. – info. sent along motor pathway– compensatory changes made by effector(s)– conditions returned to desirable levels

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83
Q

temperature regulation feedback

A

∆ detected by skin, hypothalamus– info. sent along afferent (sensory) pathway– neutrons receive sensory info. (brain)– info. sent along efferent (motor) pathway– actions

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84
Q

overall feedback model

A

increase/decrease– receptor (sensor)– integrator– effector(s)

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85
Q

nervous system main organs

A

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sensory orans, coordinates homeostasis

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86
Q

nervous systems present

A

in all metazoans except sponges

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87
Q

endocrine system organs

A

pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, hormone-secreting glands

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88
Q

muscular system organs

A

skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle- thermoregulation

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89
Q

skeletal system organs

A

bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage

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90
Q

integumentary system organs

A

skin, sweat glands, hair, nails; skin largest organ, multiple functions

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91
Q

circulatory system organs

A

heart, blood vessels, blood; interacts w/ everything

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92
Q

lymphatic system

A

lymph nodes, lymph ducts, spleen, thymus

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93
Q

respiratory system organs

A

lungs, diaphragm, trachea, airways

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94
Q

digestive system organs

A

pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, rectum, anus

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95
Q

excretory system organs

A

kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra

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96
Q

reproductive system organs

A

ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, sperm ducts, accessory glands, penis

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97
Q

vertebrate coelom cavities

A

most have 2; pericardial (surrounding heart), pleura-peritoneal
mammals also have 2 pleural cavities (lungs)

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98
Q

coelom organs

A

organs are connected to cavity to be held in place

some organs outside of cavity (kidneys)

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99
Q

useless parts

A

vestigial, ‘hold overs’, ancestry

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100
Q

some human vestigial parts

A

third eyelid, darwin’s point, wisdom teeth, erector pili, body hair, coccyx, neck rib, thirteenth rib, fifth toe, paranasal sinuses, vomeronasal organ, fellowmen reflex, extrinsic ear muscles, subclavius muscle, palmaris muscle, plantaris muscle, pyramidalis muscle, appendix, male nipples, male uterus

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101
Q

third eyelid

A

Nictitating membrane- protects eye and sweep out debris, snow blindness, in birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, tiny fold in inner corner of human eye

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102
Q

Darwin’s point

A

small, folded point of skin at top of ear in modern humans, remnant of larger shape to focus distant sound

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103
Q

wisdom teeth

A

early humans chewed lots of plants- another row of molars useful, only ~5% of population has a healthy set of 3rd molars

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104
Q

erector pili

A

smooth muscle fibres allow animals (mammals) to puff up fur to insulate or intimidate

  • humans- goosebumps
  • dogs/cats- fur standing up
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105
Q

body hair

A

brows- keep sweat out of eyes
male facial hair- sexual selection
most human body hair has no function

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106
Q

coccyx

A

fused vertebrae all that is left of tail

tail lost before humans began walking upright

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107
Q

neck rib

A

set of cervical ribs, leftovers from age of reptiles?, appear in <1% of population, cause nerve/artery problems, also associated w/ childhood cancer?

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108
Q

thirteenth rib

A

8% of adults have 13, most of us have 12

left over from chimps, gorillas?

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109
Q

fifth toe

A

mainly for balance in humans, grasping clinging to branches in apes

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110
Q

paranasal sinuses

A

nasal sinuses of ancestors may have been lined w/ odour receptors– heightened smell, aid survival
now- troublesome mucus-lined cavities, moistens air we breathe, makes head lighter

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111
Q

vomeronasal organ (VNO)

A

tiny pit on each side of nasal septum filled w/ nonfunctioning chemoreceptors
maybe once a pheromone detecting ability?

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112
Q

flehmen reflex

A

exposes VNO just behind front teeth (like horses)

expose to air, where pheromones are expected to be present

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113
Q

extrinsic ear muscles

A

trio of muscles, made it possible for pre hominids to move ears independently of heads
we still have them– ppl can wiggle ears

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114
Q

subclavius muscle

A

under shoulder from 1st rib to collarbone, useful for walking on all four
people have 0-2

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115
Q

palmaris muscle

A

long, narrow, runs from elbow to wrist, missing in 11% of humans, may have been for hanging, climbing
used for reconstructive surgery

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116
Q

plantaris

A

often mistaken for a nerve
useful for primate grasping with feet
not present in 9% of humans

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117
Q

pyramidalis

A

tiny, triangular, pouch like muscle, attached to pubic bone- from pouched marsupials?
>20% of humans don’t have

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118
Q

appendix

A

narrow, muscular tube, attached to large intestine for digesting cellulose when humans ate more plant matter, produces some white blood cells
>300,000 Americans/yr get it removed

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119
Q

male nipples

A

lactiferous ducts from well before testosterone causes sex differentiation in fetus
men have mammary tissue that can be stimulated to produce milk

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120
Q

male uterus

A

remnant of undeveloped female reproductive organ

hangs off male prostate gland

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121
Q

integument skin

A 
injury, microbial, predator protection
regulation of water
regulation of Tb
social interactions
excretion/elimination of waste
respiratory gas exchange
muscle attachment
sensory
wrapping- shape and support
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122
Q

integument water regulation

A

water can pass both ways but amount that can pass varies in different animals- amphibians drink through skin

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123
Q

integument Tb regulation

A

hair, feathers, blood supply in skin, coloring

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124
Q

integument social interactions

A

color, size of feathers, chemical attractants from glands

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125
Q

skin characteristics

A

heaviest organ in body
most functions
remarkable repair functions
interface w/ environment, serious damage = serious problems

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126
Q

integument made up of

A

dermis and epidermis

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127
Q

dermis

A

lower layer
thick, protective functions
consists of layers

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128
Q

dermis made up of

A 
stratum spongiosum
stratum compactum
hypodermis
exoskeleton 
dermal plates/scales
bone dentin(e), enamel
chromatophores
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129
Q

stratum spongiosum

A

most of blood vessels that feed other layers of skin

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130
Q

stratum compactum

A

more compact layer below spongiosum

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131
Q

hypodermis

A

covering of muscles, fat deposits, muscles that allow skin to move relative to rest of body

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132
Q

dermis characteristics

A

collagenous and elastic fibres, fibroblasts, bones, scales, nerve fibres, blood vessels, smooth muscle, mesodermal

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133
Q

exoskeleton

A

reptiles, turtles, crocodiles

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134
Q

enamel

A

hydroxyapatite

less fibrous, harder (than bone or dentin)

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135
Q

fossil agnathans

A

ostracoderms

elaborate bony armour

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136
Q

derivatives of primitive dermal bone

A

lamellar bone
spongy bone
dentin
enamel

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137
Q

denticle

A

dentin + enamel

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138
Q

placoid shark scale

A

lamellar bone + dentin + enamel

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139
Q

kinds of bone

A

dermal/membane bone

endochondral bone

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140
Q

dermal bone

A

formed in membranes
intramembranous ossification
exoskeleton, dematocranium

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141
Q

endochondral bone

A

formed in cartilage
endochondral ossification
endoskeleton

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142
Q

chromatophores

A

dermis produced color, stellate, cells and pigment granules within move around
melanophores
liphophores
iridophores

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143
Q

stellate

A

neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shape

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144
Q

melanophores

A

contain melanin (dark pigment)

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145
Q

excess melanin

A

melanistic = black

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146
Q

lack of melanin

A

albinistic - very conspicuous, low survival

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147
Q

liphophores

A

contain corotanoids

xanthophores (yellow), erythrophores (red)

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148
Q

fossil dermis findings

A

skin pigments in extinct animals, convergence of melanism

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149
Q

ToF-SIMS to detect melanin

A

time-of-flight secondary mass spectrometry

composition & spatial distribution of surface molecules, including comparisons w/ spectra of melanin

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150
Q

SEM to detect melanin

A

scanning electron microscopy

presence of ovoid bodies consistent w/ melanophores

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151
Q

EDX to detect melanin

A

energy-dispersive x-ray microanlysis

carbon associated w/ skin and not adjacent sediment

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152
Q

evidence of melanism in 3 extinct animals

A

3 marine reptiles, each lineage secondarily aquatic

Ichtyopterygia, Mosasauroidea (Squamata), Eosphargis (Testudines, turtle?)

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153
Q

melanin function

A

thermoregulations- especially in turtle?

crypsis- ichthyosaur lacks countershading (deep diving habit, background matching in low light)

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154
Q

iridophores

A

contain crystal plates made of guanine- reflect light, influence perceived color

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155
Q

cyanophore

A

blue pigment, very rare, only known in a few species of fish

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156
Q

color changing

A

position of chromatophore
∆ distribution of pigment granules w/i chromatophore
seasonal moult

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157
Q

shifts in relative position of chromatophores

A

chromatophores- ameoboid

ex. if yellow pigments move onto of black pigments

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158
Q

distribution of pigment granules within chromatophore

A

densely packed or dispersed- density of color

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159
Q

seasonal moult

A 
of plumage (birds) or pelage (mammals)
color in epidermal structures can be 'dropped'
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160
Q

chameleons color changing

A

interactions- agressive, courting
antipredator response
dominant individual use color as social signal

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161
Q

sexual dichromatism

A

sexual dimorphism

greater in breeding season than rest of year- spend energy to enhance breeding color

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162
Q

seasonal color change

A

camouflage, varies geographically, may be shown some places and not others, background matching, moult btw color change

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163
Q

seasonal color change examples

A 
Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus)
Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta)
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164
Q

ontogenetic color change

A

color change through life, younger animals generally more vulnerable

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165
Q

ontogenetic change examples

A

mule deer- baby spotted, camouflage when laying down

Racer- snake, adults plain blue/grey, blotches on young

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166
Q

structural color

A

physical properties of body colouring
especially dramatic in birds
feathers refract light in various ways- differences in angle we look at it

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167
Q

blue amphibians

A

rare, usually not due to pigment, light is scattered by iridophores

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168
Q

chromatophore layers

A 
filtering layer (xanthophore), scattering layer (iridophore), absorbing layer (melanophore)
short λ (blue-green) largely absorbed by filter.
med λ (yellow-green) pass through filter.- scattered by scattering layer- back through filter
long λ (red-orange) - pass through filtering and scattering, absorbed by absorbing layer
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169
Q

parts of epidermis

A

stratum corneum
stratum germinativum
derivatives

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170
Q

stratum corneum

A

outer layer, shed old cells in flakes or one piece

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171
Q

stratum germinativum

A

below corneum, source of new cells which move up to outer layer

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172
Q

epidermis derivatives

A 
various function glands
keratinized structures (nails, claws, hooves, scales/scutes, hair, feathers, horns, antlers, foot pads, beaks)
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173
Q

glands

A

are IN dermis

BUT epidermal in origin

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174
Q

hair

A

dips down into dermis BUT epidermal derivative

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175
Q

keratin/lipids

A

barriers to water loss and UV

amounts of keratin are variable among taxa

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176
Q

mucus glands

A

moisture, gas exchange, cooling

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177
Q

granular glands

A

produce defence toxins

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178
Q

epidermal glands

A

mucous, poison, scent, sweat, sebaeous, mammary, uropygial

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179
Q

sebaceous gland

A

base of hair, lubricant for skin

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180
Q

uropygial glands

A

base of tail in birds, preening feathers, produces oil

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181
Q

mammarly glands

A

nipple- many ducts

teat- single duct

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182
Q

fish scales

A

bony scales, dermal, permanent, not shed, only lost through injury, persist throughout life, new growth every year

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183
Q

reptile scale

A

horny scales, epidermal, shed, called scutes

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184
Q

claw, beak, horn structure

A

central bony core, covered by vascularized dermis, outer epithelial layer

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185
Q

hair

A

keratonous, not modified scales, novel, grow from bone throughout life, multiple kinds (fine coat, second coat (guard hairs) grow through to provide protection)

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186
Q

feathers

A

down- close to body, small feathers, insulation
body contour feathers- grow through
flight feathers- moulted periodically and replaced, occur in tracks along body

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187
Q

skin as a sensory organ

A

touch receptors, transmitting pain, temperature, itch, touch information to CNS
important interface between body and environment

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188
Q

skin receptors

A

nociceptors, pruriceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptor, hair/glabrous skin, lips/tongue/cheeks, mystical pads, tactile foraging

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189
Q

nociceptors

A

pain

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190
Q

pruriceptor

A

itch

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191
Q

hair/glabrous skin reception

A

glabbrous/nebrous skin- free of hair (palms, soles)

discriminative touch- clearly distinguish differences in objects, descriminate more clearly

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192
Q

lips/tongue/inner cheeks reception

A

localization and movement of food

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193
Q

mystacial pads, vibrissae

A

snout of animals, long whiskers
vibrotactility, navigation, spatial orientation in dark
extend sensitivity beyond skin surface

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194
Q

tactile foraging

A

snout of star nose mole

elaborate w/ tentacles extremely sensitive to touch, finds way around and food

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195
Q

fish sounds

A

> 700 known vocal species

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196
Q

fish sounds

A

simple vs complex

same frequency, varying frequency/amplitude (moans, growls, peals)

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197
Q

how do fish make sounds

A

stridulation
air passage
drumming

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198
Q

stridulation (fish sounds)

A

rubbing/scraping together fins, bones, teeth

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199
Q

air passage (fish sounds)

A

little understood, internal movement of air, escape of air through mouth, gills, anus (farts), FRT- frequently repetitive ticks

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200
Q

waveform

A

amplitude vs. times

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201
Q

spectrogram

A

frequency (kHz) vs. time (s)

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202
Q

types of FRTs

A

3 types- FRT1, FRT2, FRT4

~2-8kHz, ~50-60dB, differ in amplitude

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203
Q

drumming (fish sounds)

A

‘sonic’ muscles pushing/pulling on internal air/swim bladder
males have longer muscles than females

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204
Q

why/when fish are vocal

A

spawning, courtship, agression, territorial, distress, predator/prey behaviour

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205
Q

cod drumming muscles

A

larger in males
larger at spawning time
correlated with fertilization potential

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206
Q

haddock courtship behaviour

A

pulse repetition rate changes at each stage of courtship- increases in frequency

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207
Q

studying fish sounds

A

passive acoustics

technology

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208
Q

passive acoustics

A

simply listening to sounds w/ hydrophones

non-invasive, non-visual (light not needed), continuous remote monitoring, provides detailed behaviour info

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209
Q

technology (fish sounds)

A

AULS
ROVs
Autonomous glider

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210
Q

AULS

A

autonomous underwater listening stations

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211
Q

ROVs

A

remotely operated vehicle

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212
Q

autonomous glider

A

buoyancy-drive AUV

moves through water independently, no engine, moves via density changes

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213
Q

ecological uses of fish sounds

A

locate vocal fishes
determine when fish are vocal
study of underwater noise effects
examine fish interactions

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214
Q

locating vocal fishes

A

identify essential fish habitat (EFH)
locate spawning habitats
exploration of the seas
census of marine life

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215
Q

determining when fish are vocal- season and time of day

A

spawning behaviour
predator/prey interaction
foraging
territorial defense

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216
Q

studying underwater noise effects

A

identify noise sources and levels
quantify temporal/spatial patterns in noise
quantify noise impact on fish behaviour

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217
Q

cusk-eel

A

found in Cape Cod by low tech passive acoustic methods, call in chorus just after sunset, tracks time of sunset through summer,

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218
Q

Haddock

A

using AULS 1000m deep, first in situ recordings in NA, recorded daily vocal activities- more vocal late in day, spawn mostly at night-

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219
Q

freshwater drum in hudson river

A

widely distributed highly vocal family, invasive, may spawn within canals that drain into Hudson

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220
Q

how did FW drum make it to hudson river

A

track acoustic path, with emphasis on spawning locations

found drum sounds in lake champlain canal, expected to spread dramatically and may alter rivers ecosystem

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221
Q

NEPTUNE canada subsea instruments

A

Hydrophones, seismometer, piezometer, bottom pressure recorder, gravimeter

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222
Q

piezometer

A

measure liquid pressure

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223
Q

gravimeter

A

measure local gravitational field

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224
Q

penetrometers

A

moisture, strength, harness of substrate

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225
Q

VENUS

A

Strait of Georgia, Saanich Inlet
UVic data archive, shore station, instrument platforms, nodes, autonomous vehicles, surface monitoring by BC ferries, satellites, gliders, profiling system

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226
Q

noisy ocean

A

peak listening is 1-10kHz (low frequency), lots of anthropogenic noise

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227
Q

fish hearing

A

fish have 2 inner ears, no middle or external ear, inner ear similar to other verts., sensory hair cells responsible for converting sound to electrical signal

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228
Q

potential effects on hearing

A 
high intensity (transient)- fatigue, damage or kill sensory hair cells
low intensity (shipping)- may have behavioural and physiological consequences
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229
Q

fish sensory cells

A

can be replace or repaired, unlike mammals

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230
Q

pile driving noise

A

direct mortality in surfperches

startle and alarm responses when exposed to air gun- rockfish, tighter school, school collapse, become motionless

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231
Q

behavioural effects of noise

A

distribution
fitness- reduced growth, reprod.
predator-prey interaction- interference
communication- range reduction, info loss

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232
Q

shipping noise

A

most extensive source of noise in ocean, especially along major shipping channels

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233
Q

reproductive consequences

A

physiological stress, restricting mate finding, keeping fish from preferred spawn sites

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234
Q

masking communicative sounds

A

impact ability of fish to communicate acoustically or use acoustic ‘soundscape’ to learn about envrionment

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235
Q

masking predator-prey relationships

A

affect ability to find prey or detect presence of predators

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236
Q

skeletomuscular system

A

vertebrate characteristic
internal, jointed skeleton (bone or cartilage)
works with muscular system

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237
Q

skeletomuscular functions

A 
support of body
movement via joints
enclosure/protection of vital organs
storage of minerals
assistance in lung ventilation (amniotes)
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238
Q

skeletomuscular body support

A

ligaments, tendons, muscles

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239
Q

skeletomuscular mineral storage

A

Cap, P, Mg in bones

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240
Q

skeltomuscular lung ventilation

A

muscles connected to ribs

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241
Q

important connective tissues

A 
cartilage
bone
ligaments
tendons
muscle
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242
Q

cartilage

A 
matrix 
collagen
chondroblasts
chondrocytes
lacuna(e)
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243
Q

chondrocytes

A

only cells found in healthy cartilage; produce and maintain cartilaginous matrix

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244
Q

chondroblasts

A

make cartilage matrix

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245
Q

lacuna(e)

A

hole in which cells grow

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246
Q

cartilage characteristics

A

more flexible than bone
most skeletons start w/ cartilage
offer support, bone growth
no blood vessels

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247
Q

types of cartilage

A

Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic

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248
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A

‘temporary’ cartilage during growth; most articulations, ribs, nose, larynx; least elastic; low collagen

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249
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

intervertebral disks, other joints (meniscus in knee); load bearing; show absorption; joint stabilization; able to resist pressure w/ minimum friction; moderately elastic; moderate collagen

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250
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

pinna, epiglottis, other parts of visceral skeleton; vibrational properties help emit/receive sound; most elastic; most collagen

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251
Q

knee minisci

A

important for knew function- load bearing, shock absorption, joint stabilization, joint lubrication, proprioception

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252
Q

proprioception

A

ability to sense stimuli arising within the body regarding position, motion, and equilibrium

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253
Q

bone properties

A 
support and locomotion
organic components
mineral components
mineral reserves
dynamic
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254
Q

bone support and locomotion

A

balance between stiffness (hardness) and toughness (strength)

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255
Q

bone organic components

A

ex. collagen
toughness and elasticity
resistance to tensile loads

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256
Q

bone mineral components

A

ex. hydroxyapatite

stiffness, resistance to compressive loads

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257
Q

bone mineral reserves

A

Ca, P, Mg

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258
Q

bones, dynamic

A

modeling and remodelling

reabsorption and deposition

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259
Q

bone parts

A 
osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast
lacunae, canaliculi
compact, spongy
marrow
woven, lamellar
periosteum
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260
Q

osteoblasts

A

cells with single nuclei that synthesize bone

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261
Q

osteocytes

A

star-shaped cell, is the most commonly found cell in mature bone

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262
Q

osteoclasts

A

type of bone cell that resorbs bone tissue. This function is critical in the maintenance and repair, and remodelling of bones

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263
Q

bone lacunae and canaliculi

A

small canals between cells, blood cells and transport materials

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264
Q

periosteum

A

protective sheath around bones that connects to blood vessels and other structures like tendons

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265
Q

osteon

A

fundamental functional unit of much compact bone; bundle of blood vessels and lacunae

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266
Q

two types of tissue that form bone

A

compact

spongy

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267
Q

compact bone

A

cortical; facilitates bone’s main functions: to support the whole body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, store/release calcium; forms the cortex (outer shell) of most bones

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268
Q

spongy bone

A

cancellous, trabecular bone; higher SA:mass; less dense; softer, weaker, more flexible; suitable for metabolic activity-exchanges Ca; typically found at ends of long bones- proximal to joints, within interior of vertebrae; highly vascular; frequently contains red bone marrow- hematopoiesis

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269
Q

marrow

A 
flexible tissue in interior of bones, 2 types
yellow: fat
red: blood cells
birth- all red
adult- 1/2 red
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270
Q

hematopoiesis

A

production of blood cells

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271
Q

woven bone

A

no uniform structure; early development; eventually replaced by lamellar bone

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272
Q

lamellar bone

A

compact, spongy, vascular canals, osteons, ‘plywood’ structure

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273
Q

plywood structure

A

regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (lamellae), mechanically strong, much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue

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274
Q

bone stiffness

A

trade-off with toughness
high T low S: collagen– wood– chitin– bone– tooth dentin– mollusk shell– tooth enamel– glass, concrete, rocks, pottery

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275
Q

strain

A

dimensionless, epsilon = ∆length/length

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276
Q

stress vs. strain plot

A

elastic region– yield point– plastic region- fracture point

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277
Q

elastic region (stress vs. strain)

A

increases with high slope
rubber band like
steeper slope = less elastic

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278
Q

plastic region (stress vs. strain)

A

much lower slope increasing

stays together but is deformed

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279
Q

fracture point (stress vs. strain)

A

material breaks

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280
Q

stress

A

sigma = F/A

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281
Q

tissue stiffness =

A

y / x (stress/strain)

>yield pt. - yield or failure

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282
Q

bone elasticity

A
  1. 007% of strain
  2. 003 normal strain
  3. 015 results in fracture
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283
Q

ossification involves

A

direct or indirect

heterotropic bones

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284
Q

membranous ossification

A

direct laying down of bone- dermal armour, dermatocranium, parts of visceral skeleton, clavicle, others

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285
Q

endochondral ossification

A

indirect, cartilage precursor- most of axial and appendicular skeleton

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286
Q

ossification

A

laying down new bone material by osteoblasts- bone tissue formation

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287
Q

Heterotopic bones

A

isolated bones formed outside skeleton proper

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288
Q

sesamoid bones

A

small bones associated w/ tendons, joints; Often form in response to strain; act like pulleys, prove smooth surface for tendons to slide over increasing muscular forces

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289
Q

long bone structure

A

epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis

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290
Q

epiphysis

A

rounded end of a long bone, at its joint with adjacent bone(s)

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291
Q

diaphysis

A

the long midsection of the long bone

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292
Q

curious heterotopic bones

A

baculum, baubellum

Os penis, os clitoridis

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293
Q

baculum

A

penis bone, penile bone or os penis; bone found in the penis of many placental mammals, absent in human, function unknown- lock and key? some have projections, trident

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294
Q

baubellum

A

os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris

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295
Q

bird bones

A

light skeleton, not necessarily light bones, hollow bones- air filled, not marrow filled; very dense bones, especially cranial compared w/ other animals

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296
Q

pneumaticity

A

air spaces in bones

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297
Q

post cranial pneumaticity

A

only birds, dinosaurs, perhaps gas exchange system

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298
Q

bone density

A

proportional to bone stiffness and strength

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299
Q

dense bone

A

stiffer, stronger, heavier

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300
Q

bone density vs. shape graph

A

heavy-light density vs. less-more rigid shape
min. density and rigidity = low stiffness and strength
max density and rigidity = high stiff. and strength
isoclines of stiffness and strength

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301
Q

medullary bone

A

woven bone, female birds, formed seasonally, prior to and during egg-laying, Ca reservoir for building hard eggshell

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302
Q

3 kinds of eggshells

A

hard
flexible
soft

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303
Q

hard shell

A

self-contained, rigid, fossils

calcareous matter dominates; tortoise, bird, dino, croc, gecko

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304
Q

flexible shell

A

needs water, calcareous layer loose, some fossils; turtles

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305
Q

soft shell

A

needs water, organic matter dominates, no fossils, gecko, tuatara, lizard, snake

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306
Q

crocodilian egg laying

A

pre-ovulatory hpercalcemia (takes 40% of Ca to make eggshells), no medullary bone formed

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307
Q

medullary bone significance

A

underscores evolutionary link btw. bird and dino
similar reproductive bio
means of sex ID in dino

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308
Q

ligaments

A

hold bones together, provide support, connective tissue, typically collagen

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309
Q

patellar ligament

A

between patella and tibia

holds tibia and femur together

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310
Q

2 main skeleton classifications

A

endoskeleton, exoskeleton

OR cranial, postcranial

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311
Q

exoskeleton

A

within integument
keratinized exo. - epidermis
bony exo. - dermis

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312
Q

endoskeleton

A

deep, within body
bony endo.
cartilagenous endo.
notochord

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313
Q

cranial skeleton

A

splanchnocranium
chondrocranium (cartilage)
dermatocranium

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314
Q

postranial skeleton

A

axial skeleton

appendicular skeleton

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315
Q

axial skeleton

A

vertebral column

notochord

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316
Q

appendicular skeleton

A

limbs

girdle

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317
Q

endoskeleton cartilage bone

A

vertebrae, ribs, limb bones

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318
Q

endoskeleton membrane bone

A

centra (teleost), sesamoid

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319
Q

exoskeleton dermal bone

A

skull roof, dentary, clavicle, gastrula, fish scales, osteoderm

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320
Q

gastralia

A

dermal bones found in ventral body wall of crocodilian/Sphenodon, between sternum and pelvis, do not articulate with vertebrae, support for abdomen, attachment sites for abdominal muscles

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321
Q

sphenodon

A

tuatara

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322
Q

main components of the skeleton

A

dermal
endoskeleton: somatic (axial, appendicular), visceral
median fin

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323
Q

median fin

A

one of the unpaired (i.e. dorsal, anal, and caudal) fins, restricted to fish, stability, propulsion

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324
Q

nuchal ligament

A

supports head, keeps it upright

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325
Q

degree of exoskeleton

A

greatly varies in all taxa

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326
Q

origin of vertebrate head skeleton

A

deep homology and co-option (exaptation)

spread of tissue through head (neural crest), not evolution of new skeletal tissue

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327
Q

axial skeleton

A

braincase, vertebral column, ribs

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328
Q

braincase

A

endochondral part of skull

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329
Q

vertebral column

A

backbone, tail, articulating vertebrae

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330
Q

first vertebra

A

atlas- allows up and down motion of head

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331
Q

atlas articulates with

A

occipital condyle(s) on back of braincase

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332
Q

second vertebra in amniotes

A

axis- allows rotary motion of head

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333
Q

parts of vertebra

A

centrum, neural arch and spine, zygapophyses (pre and post), diapophyses

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334
Q

occipital condyles

A

1 or 2 in tetrapods

undersurface protuberances of the occipital bone, articulates w/ superior facets of the atlas vertebra

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335
Q

centrum

A

main body of vertebra

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336
Q

neural arch

A

above centrum, spinal cord runs through

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337
Q

zygapophyses

A

projections of the vertebra that fit with adjacent vertebra; articulation, lateral/up/down motion, resist portion

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338
Q

diapophyses

A

the part of the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra that articulates with its corresponding rib

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339
Q

vertebrate lateral motion

A

many vert., including tetrapods, use lateral motion for locomotion, mammals- minimally

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340
Q

fish vertebral column

A

less flexible, without zygapophysis

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341
Q

dimetrodon

A

elaborate extension of neural spines, probably supported sail, evidence of vascularized tissue- thermoregulation, and/or social signalling

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342
Q

regionalizations of vertebral column

A

Trunk- Presacral, Cervical, Dorsal, Sacral

Caudal

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343
Q

Dorsal vertebra

A

thoracic, lumbar

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344
Q

frog vertebral column

A

very short, don’t bend well, highly reduced

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345
Q

mammal cervical vertebrae

A

7, typically do not have ribs

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346
Q

mammal ribs

A

thoracic vertebrae

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347
Q

mammal caudal vertebrae

A

tail, coccyx

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348
Q

urostyle

A

long bone-fused vertebrae at base of vertebral column, frogs and toads

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349
Q

bird vertebral column

A

stiff, lots of fusion, clavicle + inter clavicle = wishbone

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350
Q

wishbone

A

furcula, fusion of two clavicle bones

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351
Q

snake vertebral column

A

many vertebrae, large range of motion

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352
Q

autotomy

A

self amputation

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353
Q

lizard autotomy

A

fracture planes in vertebrae separate w/ muscle movement; tail moves back and forth rapidly, builds up lactic acid
regenerated tail is different- cartilaginous

354
Q

Ribs

A

protect organs, used in breathing (muscle attachment), modified in various groups (ex. turtle)

355
Q

tetrapod ribs

A

homologous w/ fish dorsal ribs
attached to sternum ventrally
reduction/loss (ex. anuran)
extras (ex. snakes)

356
Q

fish ribs

A

dorsal/ventral/both

357
Q

cobra

A

cervical ribs ‘spread out’ to give the illusion of being larger

358
Q

Draco, lizard

A

wings, ribs articulate w/ vertebrae to spread out skin and form wings

359
Q

rib newt

A

pierces own body wall w/ ribs to spread toxin

360
Q

importance of sternum

A

not in animals that move ribs

very in animals that don’t, especially birds (keel)

361
Q

appendicular skeleton

A

limbs, girdles

362
Q

tetrapod pelvic girdle

A

firmly attached to sacrum- hind limbs need firm attachment to provide thrust (not in fishes)

363
Q

sacrum

A

large, triangular bone at base of spine and upper, back of pelvic cavity, inserted between hip bones, number of fused vertebrae

364
Q

number of vertebrae in sacrum

A

dogs- 3

humans, horses - 5

365
Q

tetrapod pectoral girdle

A

not attached to head, often not attached to vertebral column (except in brachiators, flyers)
fishes- firmly attached to head

366
Q

brachiators

A

primate, firm attachment of pectoral girdle for swinging

367
Q

humerus, radius, ulna

A

present in crossopterygian- tetrapods- amniotes

deep homology, homologies in limbs

368
Q

homologies

A

Similar characteristics due to relatedness

369
Q

pelvic girdle bones

A

ilium, pubis, ischium

370
Q

clavicle

A

present in fish and tetrapods- lost in some groups
only dermal element in mammal pectoral girdle
variable presence in mammals

371
Q

mammal clavicle presence

A

present- human, bats
reduced- cats
most carnivores- absent or rudimentary

372
Q

manus

A

carpals + metacarpals + phalanges

373
Q

pes

A

tarsals + metatarsals + phalanges

374
Q

variations in tetrapod manus and pes

A

homologies

375
Q

convergences

A

fins, reduction/loss of fins, legs, ‘flippers’, wings, loss of flight, body elongation, reduction/loss of digits/limbs

376
Q

functions of digits in tetrapods

A

support
locomotion
digging
grasping- perching, climbing, food manipulation

377
Q

grasping behaviour in tetrapods

A

well conserved, chiefly arboreal life, feeding
very well-developed in tree frogs (manual and pedal)
best developed in mammals (manual and pedal)

378
Q

grasping behaviour birds

A

front limbs modified to wings- grasping behaviour with back limbs, diverse toe configuration

379
Q

grasping in lizards

A

negotiating complex habitat, varying degrees of manual and pedal grasping

380
Q

grasping in unrelated tree frogs

A

convergence

suckers for gripping, digits that can wrap around branches

381
Q

most bipedal tetrapod

A

birds, longer history of bipedalism that we do

382
Q

modular locomotor system

A

hindlimb adapted for bipedal locomotion
shift from ab. muscle– back limbs for locomotor
shift from tail counter weight in dino.– knee as centre of gravity for straight back

383
Q

theropod dinosaurs leading up to birds

A

all bipedal

384
Q

joints

A

were bones meet, where all normal muscular function happens

385
Q

kinds of joints

A

immoveable
slightly moveable
freely moveable

386
Q

immoveable joints

A

synarthrosis
bones meet at a suture, associated w/ connective tissue
ex. skull bones

387
Q

slightly moveable

A

amphiarthrosis
usually cartilage and connective tissue btw. bones, quite variable, ex. pubic symphysis (moves for child birth), spinal column

388
Q

freely moveable

A

diarthrosis; synovial joint

subtypes: hinge joints, ball and socket joints, etc.

389
Q

spinal column moveability

A

joints btw vertebrae, vertebrae move against each other but movement is limited

390
Q

types of synarthrosis

A

serrate joint, scarf joint (wedge shape), butt joint (flush), peg and socket, lap joint (edges overtop each other, rare)

391
Q

hinge joint

A

finger, knee, elbow; one-way movement

392
Q

ball and socket joint

A

hip, shoulder; rotary motion

393
Q

synovial fluid

A

reduces friction between articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement (freely moveable joints)

394
Q

skull parts

A

chondrocranium
splanchnocranium
dermatocranium

395
Q

chondrocranium origins

A

neurocranium, braincase- somatic

and neural crest

396
Q

splanchnocranium origin

A

visceral skeleton, facial skeleton- from branchial arches

and neural crest

397
Q

dermatocranium origin

A

skull roof- dermal

and neural crest

398
Q

first gill arch

A

gnathostome jaw

399
Q

second gill arch

A

hyomandiubular

400
Q

jaw suspensions

A

amphistyly
hyostyly
autostyly
streptostyly

401
Q

amphistyly

A

mandibular arch supported in part by hyomandibular, primitive Chondrichthyes

402
Q

hyostyly

A

mandibular arch supported primarily by hyomandibula- Chondrichthyes, Actinopterygia

403
Q

Autostyly

A

mandibular arch not supported by hyomandibule- Dipnoi, Tetrapoda

404
Q

Steptostyly

A

quadrate bone moveable- Aves, Squamates

405
Q

fate of meckel’s cartilage, arch 1

A

Articular (teleost, amph., reptile)— Malleus (mammals)

406
Q

fate of palatoquadrate, arch 1

A

quadrate (teleost, amph., reptile)—- Incus (mammals)

407
Q

fate of hyomandibula, arch 2

A

hyomandibula (teleost)– stapes (amph., reptile., mammal)

408
Q

upper jaw teeth

A

mammals- restricted to 2 bones

other vets., more bones can support teeth

409
Q

types of teeth

A

incisors- ripping
canines- stabbing
molars- chewing

410
Q

carnivore dentition

A

incisors in front, large sharp canines, pointy triangular premolars, couple of molars

411
Q

herbivore dentition

A

few small incisors, canines, space with no teeth, few premolars and molars- flat

412
Q

omnivore dentition

A

teeth in same order but not much differences in shape/size, all relatively flat, fit together tightly, no spaces

413
Q

temporal fenestration in amniotes

A

openings in side of skull, defined relative to position of bones; anapsid, synapsid, parapsid, diapsid

414
Q

anapsid

A

ancestral, stem, lacking opening, early reptiles, turtles

415
Q

diapsid

A

2 temporal fenestrae behind orbit, one superior and one inferior; dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds, tuaturas, lizards, snakes

416
Q

synapsid

A

1 temporal fenestra behind the eye, below the postorbital bone, like the lower fenestrae in diapsids; extinct reptiles, mammals

417
Q

parapsid

A

(euryapsids) extinct, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs; 1 fenestra behind the eye, above the postorbital, similar to upper fenestra of diapsids

418
Q

streptostyly

A

quadrate bone rotates, increases mobility of jaws, lizards, snakes; 2 joints for jaw- one can be locked while other moves- more fore/apt movement, can swing out, can aid tongue projection, more forceful bite, can change in-lever

419
Q

temporal fenestration in reptiles

A

sphenodon, crocs- unmodified diapsid
lizards- lower temporal bar lost- freeing quadrate
snakes- lower and upper bar lost, very open skull, highly developed streptostyly, more moveable quadrate

420
Q

mammal temporal fenestration

A

temporal opening expanded and became confluent w/ orbital opening; bar btw eye and temporal fenestra lost
large open side of skull- large muscle attachment

421
Q

turtle fenestration

A

anapsid but debatable- may be diapsid and secondarily anapsid

422
Q

what is the function of temporal fenestrae

A

lighten skull without weakening, provide margins for muscle attachment, space for muscles to bulge out

423
Q

pattern of temporal bar evolution in diapsids, especially squamates

A

lower temporal bar is lost very early in history of diapsids, is re-aquired in tuatara and others to reduce stress

424
Q

function of derived lower bar in tuatara

A

reduction of stress on skull

425
Q

squamate

A

scaled reptiles, are the largest recent order of reptiles, comprising all lizards and snakes

426
Q

change from anapsid– diapsid

A

muscles from neurocranium to lower jaw (anapsid)– fenestra opens in dermatocranium– attachment of jaw muscles expands to edges of openings (therapsid)– jaw muscles attach to surface of dermatocranium (diapsid, synapsid)

427
Q

zygomatic arch

A

cheek bone, zygomatic process of temporal bone- a bone extending forward from the side of the skull, over the opening of the ear

428
Q

loss of lower temporal bar

A

allowed more musculature jaw– increases stresses on skull when animal bites– opened possibility for streptostyly

429
Q

fixed quadrate

A

more stress on skull with biting

430
Q

cranial kinesis

A

metakinesis, mesokinesis, prokinesis

movement of skull roof relative to braincase

431
Q

metakinesis

A

joint between brain case and back of skull is at back of skull

432
Q

mesokinesis

A

joint is in middle of skull- near orbits

433
Q

prokinesis

A

joint in front of the orbit where snout articulates

434
Q

symphysis

A

fibrocartilaginous fusion between two bones

435
Q

evolution of snake gate

A

multiple joints all over skull, extremely mobile symphysis, not fixed like in humans, stretches

436
Q

sphenodon skull

A

lower temporal bar, smaller jaw muscles and lower bite force than similar sized lizards, propalineal feeding, mastication (chew food more than other reptiles), handles food longer

437
Q

croc. temporal bar

A

have bar, have strongest absolute bite of any living tetrapod; lizards the size of an alligator would have a much stronger bite (temporal bar lowers bite force)

438
Q

propalineal feeding

A

close mouth- lower jaw in slightly posterior position– jaw slides forward- slides back in forth with food between teeth- temporal bar stabilizes jaw

439
Q

secondary palate

A

found in various amniotes

best known in mammals

440
Q

palate evolution

A

primary palate (early tetrapod)– growth across primary palate, shelf of bone (therapsid)– passageway btw primary and secondary palate, moves internal naris farther back into mouth, separate passage for eating and breathing (mammal)

441
Q

internal naris

A

choana- the paired openings between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx

442
Q

succling mammal secondary palate

A

soft palate pressed against epiglottis- 2nd seal, allows swallowing milk and breathing (through nose)- disappears in adults because trachea drops

443
Q

uvula

A

projection from posterior edge of middle of soft palate; almost completely unique to humans, unknown function and origin, involved in speech?

444
Q

secondary palate bones

A

mammals- maxilla, premaxilla, palatine

crocs- those 3 + 1 more.. pterygoid?

445
Q

why crocs have more elaborate secondary palate

A

flap closes off passageway for air, from water in mouth, so it can sit in the water for long periods of time ready to snap jaws shut

446
Q

palate and stiffness

A

skull less resistant to bending if palate removed

maximum resistant with full palate

447
Q

functions of muscular system

A

movement of body and parts, support, posture, protection of joints, internal transport, homeostatic adjustments, protein storage, metabolic heat production

448
Q

muscular system internal transport

A

aids movements in blood vessels, digestive tract, reproductive tract

449
Q

muscular system homeostatic adjustments

A

eyes- pupils constricting/dialating

450
Q

muscular system heat production

451
Q

blood flow musculature during before-during exercise

A 
drastically change supply of blood to different body parts
kidneys: 24% - 1%
brain: 13% - 3%
skin: 9% - 2%
heart: 4.3% - 4.%
skeletal muscle: 21% - 88%
452
Q

types of muscle tissue

A

smooth, skeletal, cardiac

453
Q

smooth muscle tissue

A

not striated, spindle shaped, not branched, involuntary, capable of slow sustained contractions, ex. walls of blood vessels

454
Q

skeletal muscle tissue

A

striated, cylindrical, not branched, largely voluntary

455
Q

cardiac muscle tissue

A

striated, cylindrical, branched, involuntary, looks like skeletal, ex. heart, involuntary- don’t control rate of heart beat, working all the time, branching propagates contractions

456
Q

skeletal muscles

A

actin, myosin proteins- sarcomeres- make up muscle fibrils- make up muscle fibres– make up strap muscle

457
Q

contraction of skeletal muscle

A

sliding of actin chains on myosin chains

shortened sarcomere length = increased overlap btw myosin and actin = maximum contraction = resting length

458
Q

maximum force of a muscle depends on

A

being close to resting length
more x-sectional area- more potential force
velocity- max force at lowest velocity

459
Q

length-tension curve of sarcomere

A 
force vs. sarcomere length
small sarcomere (hypercontracted)-- increasing up to max. force at resting length--- decreases to maximally extended sarcomere
460
Q

speed of muscle contraction

A
  • muscle configuration
  • proportion of red and white fibre
  • longer muscle can shorten more than shorter muscle
461
Q

absolute muscle contraction

A

long muscle- more sarcomeres in series- can shorten more than a fibre with fewer sarcomeres in series

462
Q

configuration of muscle fibres

A

parallel- strap, fusiform
pennate- angled (diff. angle than long axis)
bipennate- 2 different directions

463
Q

pennate fibres

A

typically smaller, can fit into smaller places

464
Q

muscle fibre cross section

A

anatomical, physiological

some dissipation of force if fibres aren’t in long axis direction, still contribute a lot of force

465
Q

anatomical cross-section

A

across long axis of muscle
area of a slice through the widest part of the muscle perpendicular to muscles length
similar in parallel and pennate muscle

466
Q

physiological cross-section

A

different in pennate b/c fibres are not parallel to long axis
area of a slice that cuts across all fibres of the muscle
different for a parallel and pennate muscle

467
Q

tendons

A

connect muscle to bone, collagenous, all over the place, fairly elastic, can extend length by ~16%, store elastic energy when stretched which can be used by recoil to move body forward

468
Q

muscle opperation

A

by contraction not relaxation

2 opposite actions need to take place (antagonism)

469
Q

foramen magnum

A

hole at back of skull where spinal cord enters and connects w/ brain

470
Q

acetabulum

A

hip, concavity, provides part of ball and socket joint w/ femur, head of femur fits into acetabulum

471
Q

arm antagonism

A

extension: tricep contracts, bicep relaxes
flexion: tricep relaxes, bicep contracts
biceps and triceps are antagonistic

472
Q

flight muscle antagonism

A

pectoralis- wing goes down

supracoracoideus- raises wing

473
Q

synergism

A

perform ~same function in slightly different ways + up to ore complex action together

474
Q

olecranon process

A

elbow, funny bone, where triceps connect

size depends on importance of tricep (ex. digging animal)

475
Q

different size of antagonistic muscles

A

gull- downstroke more important

hummingbird- upstroke more important- larger supracoracoideus

476
Q

categories of muscle function

A

extensor (extend), flexor (flex), adductor/abductor, levator, depressor, rotator, sphincter

477
Q

adductor vs. abductor

A

adductor- bring body part towards body

abductor- takes body part away from body

478
Q

levator vs. depressor

A

levator- raises

depressor- lowers

479
Q

rotator

A

pronation- involves placing palms into the face-down position
supination- turns the palms anteriorly or superiorly to the supine (face-up) position

480
Q

sphincter vs. dilator

A

sphincter- ringlike muscles surrounding and able to contract or close a bodily passage or opening
dilator- muscles that widen a body part

481
Q

muscle insertion

A

typically stable end of muscle, sometimes more proximal part of muscle (closer to body)

482
Q

muscle splitting and fusion

A

make homologies uncertain

483
Q

axial musculature typically divided into

A

myomeres, separated by myosepta

484
Q

myomere shapes

A

amphioxus: v-shaped
lamprey: w-shaped
shark- bony fish- more complexly folded
higher complexity - contraction extends beyond segment, important in locomotion

485
Q

hypaxial and epaxial musculature

A

hypaxial- lie ventral to horizontal septum of vertebrae

epaxial- lie dorsal to the septum

486
Q

amphibian/lizard motion

A

use lateral movement of body to extend stride

hard to move with limbs splayed to side

487
Q

tetrapod motion

A

stride dependent on motion of limbs, musculature more developed around appendices, locomotory apparatus is limbs

488
Q

snake axial musculature

A

expatiate use for contractions

489
Q

remodelling muscle

A

hypertrophy, hyperplasia

490
Q

hypertrophy

A

increasing size of individual muscle fibres

491
Q

hyperplasia

A

increase in number of fibres, due to splitting of fibres

492
Q

unused muscles

493
Q

snake, lizard reproductive modes

A

oviparity- lay eggs

viviparity- birth to live young with placenta

494
Q

modes of delivery of nutrients to young

A

placentotrophy- delivery via placenta

lecithotrophy- delivery of nutrients via yolk- most reptiles (even viviparous)

495
Q

process of forming yolk

A

vittelogenesis

496
Q

income and capital of vittelogenesis

A

income- nutrients acquired to make yolk
capital- using previously stored nutrients
snakes more often use capital, female snakes often exhibit anorexia, don’t feed while carrying young- especially lose muscle (high protein store)

497
Q

worlds smallest vertebrates

A

larval fish (<5mm)

498
Q

larval fish characteristics

A

feed initially from yolk-sac
very poor swimmers
start with no vertebral column
stage of life history where recruitment is determined

499
Q

larval fish mortality

A

> 99.9% - starvation, predation, advective losses (poor swimmers, carried away by currents in unfavourable conditions)

500
Q

interannual variations in fish population abundance

A

<1915- variations in migration patterns

now know- due to recruitment

501
Q

recruitment

A

variability in abundance results from interannual variability in # of individuals that survive larval stage

502
Q

fisheries oceanography

A

branch of biological oceanography that studies the relationship between physical environment and abundance of marine fish

503
Q

interannual variability in abundance reflects interannual variability in recruitment, proposed by

A

Johann Hjort, 1914

504
Q

marine fish eggs

A

millions of eggs/ year
clear, buoyant, ~1mm diameter
preyed upon by zooplankton, larval fish, large fish (cannabalism common)

505
Q

hatch times

A

days-months

colder water = longer time to hatch

506
Q

yolk- sac

A

nutrition to developing embryo
aids in buoyancy
nutrients are function of mothers health

507
Q

larval stage

A

2 phases: yolk-sac phase, post yolk-sac phase
large eyes, visual predators
suction feeding

508
Q

yolk-sac phase

A

rely on yolk-sac, days-weeks (dependent on T), no gills no obvious fins, no proper tail

509
Q

post yolk-sac phase

A

after yolk used up- exogenous feeding (plankton)

510
Q

larva eat

A

initially copepod nauplii– switch to larger zooplankton

511
Q

larval pray size depends on

A

foraging ability, gape (mouth width)

512
Q

suction feeding

A

swim up to prey, open mouth quickly, creates vacuum, prey sucked into mouth

513
Q

how far can larval fish see

A

about another body length away (~1cm)

prey are ~5cm apart, spend most of time foraging

514
Q

reynolds number Re =

A

UL/v
U = swimming speed m/s
L = body length m
v = viscosity of seawater m^2/s - 10^-6 for 20º seawater

515
Q

Re <100

A

viscous forces dominate, environment is totally viscous to animal, like human swimming through honey, larval fish in this range

516
Q

Re > 200

A

intertial forces begin to dominate

517
Q

typical reynolds numbers

A 
sperm 0.01
copepod 4
larval fish 25
human 4x10^6
blue whale 3x10^8
518
Q

reciprocal motion

A

fore-stroke and return are identical- useless in low Re conditions (must be non-reciprocating)

519
Q

larval fish metamorphosis

A

transition from larval-juvenile
begins ~5-10mm
juveniles resemble miniature adults
mortality declines after metamorphosis

520
Q

changes associated with metamorphosis

A

cutaneous (skin) breathing - gill breathing
develop paired pectoral fins, tail
develop adult-like pigment
eel-like swimming - beat and glide swimming
eye migration (flatfishes)
develop vertebrae- body rigidity for swimming

521
Q

ELHS

A

early life history stages

522
Q

ELHS atlantic cod

A

eggs 1mm
yolksac larva 3mm
late larval period 8mm
metamorphosed juvenile 10mm

523
Q

c-start escape mechanism

A

larval fish, entire body curved like an eel or ‘C’ (no vertebral column)

524
Q

as yolk-sac is absorbed and tail develops

A 
swim speed increases
response time decreases
acceleration increases
time to max speed decreases
body curvature decreases
525
Q

allometric growth in larval fish

A

head and tail grow relatively faster than rest of body- developing speed capabilities
after early development, change in growth rates

526
Q

gills in fish

A

O2 uptake AFTER larval development (skin before)

ion exchange- Na+ uptake increases faster than O2 uptake

527
Q

skin-gill transition

A

significantly earlier or Na+ uptake than O2 uptake
~16days vs. ~30?
ion exchange more important than respiration in larva?

528
Q

why larval flatfish have eyes on both sides

A

living in 3D environment, need binocular vision (eggs are buoyant)

529
Q

flatfish eye migration

A

can be as quick as 2 days, or 120
eyes kept in same plane as body turns
adaptation for 2D environment (ocean floor)

530
Q

larval mortality graph

A

mortality %/day vs. length mm
- exponential
egg stage is highest percent and sharp slope
inflection point of graph is metamorphosis (~10mm)

531
Q

metamorphosis distribution

A

tight distribution with size, not age- hydrodynamic constraints (Re number)
most undergo metamorphosis at 5-10mm

532
Q

why metamorphosis is constrained by size

A

remodelling can’t be done at low Re
reciprocal motion doesn’t work at low Re
gill transition wouldn’t work at low Re
can’t have vertebral column in low Re (need flexibility)
fins no use in low Re (would move them back and forth)

533
Q

fundamental units

A 
mass, m, kg
length, l, meter
time, t, second
force, F, newton
work, W, joule
power, P, watt
534
Q

F =

535
Q

W =

536
Q

P =

537
Q

types of muscular contraction

A

isotonic- concentric, eccentric

isometric

538
Q

isotonic contractions

A

muscle changes length as it contracts- results in movement

539
Q

concentric muscular contraction

A

force of muscle is adequate for moving a load
ex. picking up a stick
muscle shortens as it contracts
muscle contraction - sarcomeres

540
Q

eccentric muscular contraction

A

muscle lengthens as it is contraction

ex. big heavy load you can’t pick up

541
Q

isometric muscular contraction

A

muscle doesn’t change length as it contracts, constant length from one end to other including tendon connecting it, important in posture and support
ex. pushing a boulder you can’t move, pull open a door that won’t open

542
Q

muscular force vs. speed

A

trade-off, decreasing, can’t maximize both at once, force is max at velocity = 0

543
Q

force and power vs. shortening speed

A

force drops as velocity increases but power increases at intermediate velocity, can’t maximize force and power at the same time

544
Q

classification of muscle fibres

A

fast-twitch fibres
slow-twitch fibres
some intermediates

545
Q

fast-twitch fibres

A

white/blue, Type II; generate high force, rapid fatigue, high glycogen, anaerobic (glycolytic) metabolism- build up lactic acid, moderate blood and oxygen supply, low myoglobin, fast actions

546
Q

slow-twitch fibres

A

red, Type I; low force, lower power, fatigue-resistant, abundant mitochondria- aerobic (oxidative) metabolism, myoglobin- transport hemoglobin, rich in blood and oxygen, can contract in sustained fashion

547
Q

muscle fibre composition

A

speed depends on fibre composition, individual muscle can have both types of fibres, actions depend on amount of each type

548
Q

duck breast muscle fibres

A

dark meat- red fibres- sustained flying

549
Q

chicken breast muscle fibres

A

white meat- white fibres- can’t fly- fast twitch

550
Q

force and power vs. velocity for slow and fast-twitch

A

slow-twitch- force has lower inflection point, power has lower max (~same as force infl. pt. in fast-twitch), max. velocity is ~1/2 that of fast-twitch
fast-twich have more power

551
Q

contraction strength vs. time of muscles

A

eye: reaches max quick and dissipates quick- mostly fast-twitch
deep muscle of leg: reaches max slower and sustains it, declines much slower (mostly slow-twitch)
calf muscles: intermediate between the two

552
Q

power performance and endurance

A

originally thought to not be a trade-off, after correcting for differences- found a negative correlation
can’t be a specialist and a generalist at the same time

553
Q

endurance, sprint speed, lizards

A

high endurance = low sprint speed
high spring speed in ground dwelling- escape behaviour when entering open habitats, not seen in all lizards because its a trade-off

554
Q

%red muscle in ocean species

A

large variations, constant swimmers = high proportion; benthic living = low proportion

555
Q

position of red muscle, fish

A

usually superficial, internalized in tuna

556
Q

power vs. tail-beat frequency, fish swimming

A

red muscle much lower in graph, much less powerful- slow, medium locomotion; white muscle kicks in and provides the power and fast locomotion

557
Q

tuna vs. billfish

A

tuna: internalized red muscle, body remains stiff, caudal peduncle and tail are point of flexion
billfish: superficial red muscle, most of body involved in propagation of propulsion

558
Q

senescence

A

muscular atrophy occurring with age, even if used; gradual deterioration of function

559
Q

sarcopenia

A

degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass (0.5–1% loss per year after the age of 50), quality, and strength associated with aging

560
Q

whats going on with senescence

A

loss of fast-twitch fibres
shifting from fast-slow twitch phenotype with age, slowing of muscle contractile properties- reduces cost of locomotion in elderly

561
Q

rattlesnake shaker muscles- rapid movement sustained for long periods of time

A

loaded with mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum- supply Ca for nervous action
very economical- lowest cost per twitch
intermediate type of muscle
generates heat (one of the costs?)

562
Q

levers

A 
class 1, 2, 3
fulcrum between in-force and load
in-force generated by muscular contraction
lever-bone
fulcrum- typically a joint
speed/force depend on distances
563
Q

class 1

A

out down, fulcrum, in up

ex. pushing down on toe, ankle, heel moving up

564
Q

class 2

A

fulcrum, out up, in up

ex. pivot toe, leg goes up up, lift heal up

565
Q

class 3

A

fulcrum, in up, out up

ex. pivot heel, push on leg, toe goes down

566
Q

in-lever

A

l_i, length

567
Q

out-lever

568
Q

in-force

569
Q

out-force

570
Q

when in-force balances load

A

F_i * I_i = F_o * I_o

571
Q

in-force moves load

A

F_i * I_i > F_o * I_o

572
Q

load moves lever against in-force

A

F_i * I_i < F_o * I_o

573
Q

steady state (levers)

A

F_o = F_i (I_i / I_o)

to increase F_o—- increase F_i, or I_i / I_o

574
Q

digger vs. runner arm leaver

A

runner: short I_i, ratio is fairly low, not very big mechanical advantage; mechanical advantage tells a lot about function

575
Q

to increase velocity of out-lever

A

decrease I_i / I_o

V_o * I_i = V_i * I_o

576
Q

gear ratio

A

GR = I_o / I_i

577
Q

low GR

578
Q

high GR

A

speed (and stride in limbs)

579
Q

direction of force of muscle

A

depends on orientation
arm at right angle- force directed along length of arm
arm open more than 90º- force ‘out’ from ‘elbow pit’

580
Q

plantigrade

A

whole foot on ground- small metatarsals

581
Q

digitigrade

A

walk on toes- med. metatarsals

582
Q

unguligrade

A

walk on tips of toes- large metatarsals

583
Q

orientation, speed of limb

A

effects gearing, speed

584
Q

bear limb gears

A

high gear gluteal group- gluteus maximus, gluteus medius
low gear femoral group- adductor femoris
high AND low gear muscles used to extend femur
can rotate limb very rapidly with little power, rapid acting muscles, steady speeds
femoris- low gear for rapid acceleration

585
Q

MA

A

mechanical advantage

586
Q

Redeye Piranha

A

large adductor muscle, huge tendon, 3rd class lever, Li/Lo amplifies AM force transmission from jaw tip to posterior teeth- more powerful force at back of mouth

587
Q

streptostyly in lizards, lever

A

2 different size in-levers and out-levers

upper articulation = longer in-lever = more forceful bite

588
Q

cuticle

A

acellular outer mucus layer in fish, protective substance including toxins and antimicrobial compounds; limited keratinization

589
Q

diversity of feeding types in fish

A

detritivores, planktivores, herbivores, carnivores, molluscivores, insectivores, piscivores, omnivores, parasites

590
Q

evolution of feeding in fish

A

parasitize (jawless fish)– suction, biting (since jaw evolution, in most fish)

591
Q

new mechanisms with bony fish

A

premaxilla protrusion, pharyngeal jaws, mechanical diversity, muscle duplication

592
Q

important mouth functions

A

food capture- feet, mouth, teeth, tongue
oral transport- food handling in mouth, ingestion, mastication, swallowing, teeth, tongue, cranial kinesis, salivary glands

593
Q

salivary glands

A

sublingual gland, mandibular gland, parotid gland, orbital gland; lubricate foods and start digestion

594
Q

mobility of upper jaw

A

has evolved twice, led to increased processing capabilities, can tackle larger prey because they can break it into pieces as they kill it

595
Q

grass carp pharyngeal jaws

A

no teeth in jaws, long serrated teeth in pharyngeal jaw- pharyngeal teeth; interact with basioccipital pad to grind down material making it more digestible

596
Q

moray eel pharyngeal jaws

A

are brought forward when it opens its mouth and becomes an important prey capture mechanism- unable to generate pressure differences for suction feeding, massive adductor muscles propel pharyngeal teeth

597
Q

feeding in water

A

prey is generally same density as water- approaching it pushes it away- most open mouth and oral cavity wide to create negative pressure- suck in prey and water

598
Q

box turtle feeding

A

capable of feeding on land and in water (most turtle only in water), hyoid apparatus depresses more in feeding in water than in land

599
Q

ways to swallow food whole

A

suction feeding, raptorial pharyngeal jaws, pterygoid walk, inertial feeding

600
Q

suction feeding

A

teleosts, aquatic amphibians, aquatic turtles

601
Q

raptorial pharyngeal jaws

A

moray eels

602
Q

pterygoid walk

A

most snakes, move jaws independently over prey and pull it in

603
Q

inertial feeding

A

birds, lizards, like a pelican

604
Q

mechanical digestion

A

breaking food down into pieces

605
Q

chemical digestion

A

in stomach

606
Q

evolution of mammal chewing

A
  1. jaw joint, shapes of jaws changed so jaws be brought together to breakdown food unilaterally (one side of jaw at a time)
  2. change in jaw joint and adductor muscles- transverse movements (teeth can be moved side to side against each other)
  3. tribosphenic molars develop w/ complex surfaces, cusps that fit together dynamically during occlusion (can grind up food)
607
Q

occlusion

A

manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed

608
Q

tribosphenic chewing

A

unique to mammals, parallel to some dinos., puncture crushing- vertical bite first, then more side to side like horse/cow

609
Q

increase lever arm of jaw muscles acting on jaw joint to increase chewing fores

A

moving muscle insertions further out on lower jaw
moving muscle insertions higher onto coronoid process
moving the position of the jaw joint to increase lever arm

610
Q

arcilineal jaw movement

A

jaw closes, up and down, no fancy movement

611
Q

propalineal movement

A

tuatara, jaws move against each other longitudinally

612
Q

bird chewing

A

chew with guts not mouth, no teeth, beaks only for capture, can move both jaws, unique to raise upper jaw

613
Q

gizzard

A

ventriculus- modified stomach, very muscular, horny sheet inside of it, keratinous sheet grinds up food

614
Q

stomach stones in birds, to grind up food

A

gastroliths (typically rough rocks)

615
Q

gizzard compensating for teeth loss

A

initially thought this, but these traits are seen together in some dinosaurs; probably aided reduction of head mass for flight

616
Q

alimentary tract

A

tubular passage extending from the mouth to the anus, through which food is passed and digested

617
Q

GI tract

A

gastrointestinal; esophagus, stomach, intestine; organ system responsible for consuming and digesting food, absorbing nutrients, expelling waste

618
Q

sphincter GI tract

A

esophageal sphincter before stomach, gastric sphincter after stomach

619
Q

gut regions

A

fore/mid/hind

620
Q

cecum

A

beginning of large intestine; processing bacterial digestion of plant material, present in many verts.

621
Q

parts of small intestine

A

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

622
Q

parts of large intestine

A

cecum, colon, rectum, anus

623
Q

changes in GI tract structure

A

straight- agnathan
spiral valve- chondrichthian
more and more complicated up to mammals
increasing surface area to improve digestion

624
Q

the more plant material consumed

A

the longer the gut, difficulty with which plant material is digested
increasingly long and coiled intestines: carnivore- omnivore- hebivore

625
Q

rumination

A

complex stomach with multiple chambers; regurgitate partially digested food from stomach (Cud), chew it again; Rumination- rechewing the cud, facilitates proper breakdown of cellulose rich plant matter

626
Q

foregut

A

stomach, primary digestion, HCL

627
Q

midgut

A

intestine, pancreas, liver; digestion, absorption, peptidases, amylases, etc.,

628
Q

hindgut

A

hindgut chamber, rectum; absorption, defecation, fermentation

629
Q

bird stomach(s)

A

proventriculus- secretes acids/enzymes

gizzard- mechanical breakdown

630
Q

crop

A

dilation of esophagus that stores and softens food

631
Q

gut lining

A

villi, which are lined with microvilli

enormously increase surface area

632
Q

labile

633
Q

gut is labile

A

lots remodelling, increases in size with feeding, including increasing size of villi, increase seen in multiple organs (stomach, lungs, heart, pancreas, liver, kidneys, intestinal mucosa)

634
Q

Hirschsprung’s Disease

A

Megacolon; musculature in gut stops working, faces are not moved properly, removed surgically

635
Q

adaptive constipation

A

typical in large bodied vipers; may not deficit in 400days, provide balance when animal strikes, rapid strikes lunge it forward, retain feces more than other species that don’t lunge

636
Q

atavism

A

resemblance to remote ancestors rather than to parents; reversion to an earlier type; ‘one-off’ developmental abnormalities, ‘throwbacks’; evolutionary reversals; problems for phylogenetic analysis

637
Q

snake atavism

A

occasionally find a snake with Diddy biddy hind limb buds

638
Q

human atavism

A

some babies born with tails

human coronary circulation similar to reptiles

639
Q

Dollo’s law

A

biologist who argued that evolution can’t run backwards, genes/developmental pathways released from selective pressure will become nonfunctional

640
Q

best example of evolution in reverse

A

axolotl- paedomorphosis lost, metamorphosis regained

641
Q

viviparity in squamates, atavism

A

viviparity has evolved multiple times, most transitions are o-v, but in some cases v-o; if oviparity is ancestral (as is thought) then this represents a requisition

642
Q

spontaneous atavisms

A

rare atavistic anomalies in individual specimens

643
Q

phylogenetic character reversals

A

expressed in all members of a give clade

644
Q

taxic atavisms

A

phylogenetic character reversals- important for evolution, mechanism for generating morphological variation within clades

645
Q

atavisms and convergent evolution

A

can easily be confused if trees are equally parsimonious

646
Q

double decay BS

A

double decay branch support

647
Q

crocodilian atavism vs. convergence

A

similar long skinny snout- long thought to be convergent
molecular data shows sister species- snout derived- atavistic; skull table, braincase, jaws, hyoid, osteoderms, ribs, vertebrae, forelimbs, pelvis- reversals to fossil/outgroup traits

648
Q

the case of the midwife toad

A

proteus with eyes restored
induced color adaptations by rearing on coloured soil
nuptial pads developed by forced water mating

649
Q

nuptial pads

A

seasonal hypertrophy in skin of male frogs in water living species, hormonally controlled, help male keep grip on female for mating in water

650
Q

hypertrophy

A

increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells

651
Q

hyperplasia

A

cells remain approximately the same size but increase in number

652
Q

venom glands

A

modified salivary glands, venom kills prey, sometimes begins digestion

653
Q

relative gizzard sizes

A

high fibre diet (hard to digest)- gizzard increases in size
low fibre- gizzard decreases in size
gizzard varies between and within species, gut readily remodelled

654
Q

respiratory gas exchange

A

oxygen gain from fluid medium, CO2 dumped into fluid medium

655
Q

ventilation

A

movement of medium (water/air) either due to current or muscular action on a part of the animal, especially in relation to the gas exchange surface

656
Q

breathing

A

skeletoventrical movements that cause ventillation near the gas exchange surface

657
Q

respiratory gas exchange organs

A

gills, lungs, skin

658
Q

skin for gas exchange

A

majorly amphibians but to some degree in all animals, even a little bit in humans

659
Q

plethodontid salamanders

A

loss of lungs
loss of larval stage
consequences in tongue projection

660
Q

plethodont lung loss

A

synapomorphy, ancestral character, anti bouyancy mechanism, changes in breathing- lose need for hyoid apparatus (movements of mouth floor)

661
Q

ancestral lung state

A

salamanders lived in fast flowing streams- high O2

not the case now, lung loss is not a function of O2

662
Q

plethodont, loss of larval stage

A

direct development, in some species, no requirement of hyoid for suction feeding

663
Q

plethodont tongue projection

A

ballistic tongue projection; hyoid apparatus projected out of mouth (tongue skeleton), retracted by muscles all the way back to hip; only possible b/c hyoid not needed for buccal pumping

664
Q

O2 concentrations

A

fresh water 6.6 mL/L at 20ºC
Air 209 mL/L
increases with declining temperature and increasing turbulance

665
Q

increasing skins respiratory exchange

A

loose, baggy skin, increased SA (hellbender salamander, lake Titicaca frog), capilli growth- highly vascularized gas exchange surface (male hairy frog)

666
Q

larval salamander gas exchange organs

A

skin, lungs, gills

667
Q

bony fish gas exchange organs

A

lungs very basal, secondarily lost in many groups, modified into swim bladders in many species- triple exaltation (breathing, buoyancy, sound?)

668
Q

gills

A

main aquatic gas exchange surface, fish, amphibians

pharyngeal arch- gill arch- skeletal support for the gill

669
Q

on each gill arch (gas exchange)

A

primary lamelli, covered in secondary lamelli- these are the actual gas exchange surface

670
Q

counter current exchange system, gills

A

water flows across secondary lamella on gill arch, they pick up oxygen from water, and carry the oxygen to body tissues in the opposite direction of water flow

671
Q

lamprey water flow

A

nonfeeding: through mouth– pharynx– gill arches– out
feeding: in sides of gill arches and back out, doesn’t enter body cavity, mouth, or pharynx

672
Q

spiracle

A

opening in sharks where water enters and can be forces out gill slits

673
Q

operculum

A

bony flap covering gills, can be closed

674
Q

teleost fish respiratory (gills)

A

take in water in buccal cavity with operculum closed– expand opercular cavity, pressure drops (same as feeding)– force water through opercular cavity– opercular valve open– water out

675
Q

salamander gill

A

remain external, well developed

676
Q

frog spiracle

A

dictates direction of water flow through gills (tadpole), types 1,2,3,4

677
Q

variation in gill sizes

A

large gills- still ponds
small gills- fast flowing mountain stream
bigger fin on tail- pond
larger gas exchange surfaces

678
Q

lungs

A

major gas exchange surface in air

gills have too many fine surfaces, would not be efficient in air

679
Q

evolution of aspiration breathing in tetrapods

A
  1. aquatic buccal pump- operated by hyoid apparatus
  2. two-stroke buccal pump- 2 movements of mouth for each breath, sole dependence on buccal pump
  3. exhalaion powered by hypaxial musculature
  4. costal aspiration (loss of buccal pump, fully associated with musculature)
680
Q

aspiration

A

bringing in air via musculoskeletal system- sucking in air

681
Q

2-stroke buccal pump

A

drops floor of mouth to open mouth cavity (using buccal pump)– then glottic opens– air is forced out past air that has just been taken in– floor of mouth raised– air forced past lungs

682
Q

frog/amphibian lung breathing

A

breathe through nose– glottis closed– open nostril– lower floor of mouth– negative pressure– air enters oral cavity– open epiglottis– force air out nostril (exhale) by elastic recoiling of lung– close nostril– raise floor of mouth (second stroke)– force air into lung- set up elastic recoil

683
Q

epiglottis

A

a thin, valvelike, cartilaginous structure that covers the glottis during swallowing, preventing the entrance of food and drink into the larynx

684
Q

glottis

A

opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx

685
Q

in between breathes, frogs

A

raise and lower floor- get rid of stale air in mouth

686
Q

frog courtship noises

A

with nostrils closed- force air into vocal sacs rapidly- accoustic radiator- shift air back and forth between lungs and vocal sacs very rapidly

687
Q

sprawling posture and breathing

A

body musculature needed for locomotion, breathing?

volume moved out of lungs decreases rapidly with speed, can’t run fast for long- can’t breathe- trade-off

688
Q

minute ventilation

A

total air inhaled and exhaled in a minute

689
Q

axial constraint

A

breathe and move with same musculature

690
Q

gular pump

A

accessory breathing apparatus- independent of body musculature so they can move air into lungs while running

691
Q

oropharyngeal pump used for lung inflation in air-breathing fishes and amphibians

A

buccal pump

692
Q

pharyngeal pump used as accessory lung inflation mechanism in lizards and tuataras

A

gular pump

693
Q

non-ventilatory expansion/compression of buccal cavity, preformed with mouth closed and usually serving as olfactory function

A

buccal oscillation

694
Q

non-ventialtory expansion/compression of buccal cavity, with mouth open, serving as thermoregulatory function

A

gular flutter (related to panting)

695
Q

Ichthyostega

A

had a rib cage, perhaps breathing close to amniotes

696
Q

elastic recoil

A

exhalation

697
Q

recoil aspiration

A

lung wall musculature contracts– pressure drops– lungs deflate, air pushed out– integument drawn inward to compensate for volume change— deformation stores elastic energy - negative pressure

698
Q

tetrapod respiratory system

A

tidal or unidirectional
dead space
vocalizations

699
Q

tidal respiration

A

bidirectional, humans

700
Q

unidirectional

A

birds, more efficient O2 extraction

701
Q

dead space

A

volume of air inhaled that does not take part in gas exchange, because it (1) remains in the conducting airways, (2) reaches alveoli not perfused

702
Q

perfused

A

supply (an organ, tissue, or body) with a fluid, typically blood, by circulating it through blood vessels

703
Q

benefits of dead space

A

CO2 retained, make buffered blood; Inspired air brought to T_b, increasing affinity of hemoglobin for O2, improving uptake; Particulate matter trapped on mucus, allowing removal; Inspired air is humidified, improving quality of airway mucus

704
Q

vocalization

A

vocal chords- in larynx, vibrate when air rushes past
syrinx- vocal organ of birds; at the base of trachea, produces sounds w/o vocal cords, sound is produced by membrane vibrations when air flows through

705
Q

types of lung

A

faveolar lung

alveolar lung

706
Q

faveloar lung

A

septate, reptiles, modified in birds, less compartmentalized, no alveoli, pockets open from central chamber

707
Q

alveolar lung

A

mammals, lots of alveoli pickets

708
Q

compliance

A

ability for the lung to be inflated

709
Q

parenchyma

A

gas exchange tissue

710
Q

structural type vs. praenchyma

A

uni-cameral, multi-cameral, highly specialized vs. homogeneous, heterogeneous

711
Q

highly specialized, homogeneous

A

large surface area, low compliance, mammal

712
Q

highly specialized, heterogeneous

A

large surface area, high compliance, dinosaurs, birds

713
Q

uni-cameral, homo-heterogeneous

A

amphibians, reptiles, large surface area, low compliance unless body elongated

714
Q

amphibian lungs

A

single chambered, only complement gills and skin

715
Q

amniote lungs

A

multichambered shared by all amniotes, principle gas exchange site, key to conquering land

716
Q

Archosaurs

A

crocodiles, birds

717
Q

Lepidosaurs

A

lizard, snakes, tuatara

718
Q

lepidosaur lungs

A

couldn’t maintain multi chambered heart due to miniaturization, multichamberedness is still ontogenetically visible

719
Q

axial bending, lizard

A

bending axis btw right/left lobes of lungs- bending to one side- one lobe reduces in volume, the other expands, air may be pumped back and forth btw, but little is moved in and out of the animal

720
Q

axial bending, dog

A

bending axis is dorsal to thoracic cavity, sagittal ending changes thoracic volume- actively pumps air in and out of lungs for each locator cycle

721
Q

sagittal plane

A

vertical plane which passes from anterior to posterior, dividing the body into right and left halves

722
Q

7 important, independent, character developments in breathing

A 
diaphragmatic muscles
large transverse process
bipedal locomotion
upright posture
bounding
lateral stability of vertebral column
endothermy
723
Q

large transverse process

A

trunk vertebrae providing attachment sites fro axial muscles, independent of ribs; functional separation btw breathing and locomotion; characteristically large in Archosaurs

724
Q

costal aspiration, reptiles

A

inhalation- ribs move forward and out, thorax expands, air sucked in
exhalation- ribs move backward and in, thorax compresses

725
Q

craniolateral movement of ribs

A

forward and out

726
Q

turtle breathing

A

use muscles

inhalation: abdominal oblique, serratus
exhalation: transverse abdominus, pectoralis

727
Q

alligator breathing

A

craniolateral movement of ribs, have diaphragm, post hepatic septum behind liver, transversals

728
Q

posthepatic septum

A

when pulled back, helps with breathing- ‘hepatic piston’, ‘pelvic aspiration’, muscles attached to pelvis

729
Q

transversals

A

move liver forward- capable of breathing and walking and galloping

730
Q

bird respiratory

A

highly modified reptilian lungs, air sacs do not exchange gases, unidirectional lungs, extract 30-35% of O2 from air, adaptation for flight, sternum moves down for inspiration; abdominal/thoracic cavities not divided (no diaphragm)

731
Q

evolution of bird respiratory system

A

thought to be unique, findings of unidirectional flow in iguana- new understandings

732
Q

mammals respiratory system

A

simple system, craniolateral movement, diaphragm, elastic recoil

733
Q

mammal respiratory passage

A

mouth/nares– buccal cavity/nasal cavity– trachea– bronchi– bronchiole– alveoli– diaphragm

734
Q

circulatory system involves

A 
blood
closed circulatory system (vertebrates)
muscular heart
arteries, veins, capillary beds
portal veins
735
Q

veins/arteries

A

veins- to lungs

arteries- from lungs

736
Q

portal vein

A

one organ to another

737
Q

simplified circulation pathway

A

aorta– arteries– arterioles– capillaries– venules– veins– vena cava

738
Q

heart evolution

A

single ventricle, single aortic opening (amphibian)– single ventricle, two aortic openings (reptile)– fully divided heart (croc)

739
Q

amphibian heart

A

oxy and deoxy blood mix in ventricle

740
Q

basic heart structures

A

left: superioir vena cava, sinoatrial node, right atrium, inferior vena cava, tricuspid valave, right ventricle
right: left atrium, left pulmonary veins, bicuspid valve, left ventricle
middle: atrioventricular node, ventricular septum

741
Q

single circulation

A

1V, 1A, gills, tissues, back to heart; fish, O2 picked up from gills, carried to tissue, heart doesn’t receive very oxygenated blood- possible evolutionary development of lungs

742
Q

double circulation in

A

archosaurs, mammals, lungfish, amphibians

743
Q

double circulation, single ventricle, atrium

A

heart– gills– air breathing organ AND tissues– back to heart from both; partly oxygenated blood coming in to lung- helps oxygenate heart; not completely oxygenated blood delivered to tissues

744
Q

double and partially divided circulation, lungfish

A

intermediate stage; 2A, 1V– gills AND air breathing organ– from gills– tissues– back to heart; tissues receive more oxygen than non divided system

745
Q

double and partially divided circulation, amphibians, reptiles

A

1V, 2A in middle- out right side to skin (then tissues) AND tissues– then back to heart; out left side to lung and back to heart; fully oxygenated blood going to tissues and heart

746
Q

double completely divided circulation, mammals, archosaurs

A

2V, 2A: out RV– lung– RA– LV– tissues– RA

747
Q

croc divided circulation

A

foramen of panizza- carries blood from LV (oxygenated) to RV to supply heart with oxygen

748
Q

pulmonary

A

of, relating to, affecting, or occurring in the lungs; carried on by the lungs

749
Q

systemic

A

part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart

750
Q

coronary

A

pertaining to the arteries that supply the heart tissues and originate in the root of the aorta

751
Q

aorta

A

the main trunk of the arterial system, conveying blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all of the body except the lungs

752
Q

vena cava

A

superioir-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the heart’s right atrium
inferioir- carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body into the right atrium of the heart

753
Q

coronary support

A

Lamnidae: moderate- partially endothermic
Osteichthyes, Tetrapods: slight, mostly spongey
Croc, bird, mammals: extensive, no spongey (compact myocardia)

754
Q

5 chamber heart

A

non-croc reptiles- ventricle ‘partially divided’, some division of blood but potential for mixing; blood flow can be shunted past lung to avoid build up of CO2 in lungs (diving); R-L and L-R shunts

755
Q

shunt

A

hole or a small passage which moves, or allows movement of, fluid from one part of the body to another

756
Q

croc shunt

A

from right atrium to foramen of panizza (R-L shunt)

757
Q

euthermy

A

true endothermy, birds and mammals (Eutherms)

758
Q

ectotherm

A

mainly derive body heat from external sources- radiation, conduction from the ground

759
Q

endotherm

A

mainly derive heat metabolically, also from external environment

760
Q

poikilothermy

A

T_b is variable (typically ectotherms)

761
Q

homeothermy

A

single/stable T_b (typically endotherms)

762
Q

temporal heterothermy

A

not perfectly constant homeothermy, seen in endotherms

763
Q

variation in thermal physiology of vertebrates

A

large variation, endo/ecto and poiko/homeo grid shows organisms in all quadrants; though only mole rats are poikilo endotherms

764
Q

animals in a room with homogenous T that is gradually increased

A

mammal- defend T_b against a gradient, maintains Tb independent of environment
snake- basically matches room T
note- real world is not thermally homogenous

765
Q

real world temperature variations

A

snake can take advantage of microhabitats to maintain a relatively stable Tb ex. shade on a hot day, on a cold day, must be a thermoconformer

766
Q

ectotherms capable of

A

rapid excursion of Tb- maintain ~30º, plunge into water- drop to ~10º Tb; can’t maintain optimal T during feeding

767
Q

ectotherm performance curve

A

relative performance vs. Tb; performance increases with Tb up to a point; performance curves reach optimum around same point for all functions; Tb is tightly spread around optimum T

768
Q

temperature ranges tolerable

A

ectotherms: -10 - 50º

active endotherm: ~30-45º

769
Q

land vs aquatic ectotherms

A

land: ~-10 - 40º
aquatic: 5-45º

770
Q

thermal conductivity, 25ºC

A

water: 0.58 W/m K
air: 0.024 W/m K
soil w/ organics: 0.15-2
water is 3333X air, harder for aquatic animals to reach high Tb, less steep T gradients in water- homogenized

771
Q

BMR

A

basal metabolic rate

minimal rate of energy expenditure per unit time by warm-blooded animals at rest

772
Q

metabolic rates and turpor

A

resting (turpor)- large drop in MR, lower Tb

resting MR < active MR, common in small birds/mammals

773
Q

daily temporal heterothermy

A

dunnart (marsupial) drops MR below BMR and Tb decreases overnight

774
Q

seasonal temporal heterothermy

A

ground squirrel; series of torpor events interrupted by arousal events- raise Tb to normal levels

775
Q

regional heterothermy

A

bearded dragon lizard, under thermal stress exhibits panting behaviour to cool down (evaporation from moist inner mouth)

776
Q

oral vs. cloacal T in snakes

A

concealed: same T
exposed: head ~10º warmer- preferentially heat head first
differential body part heating

777
Q

california ground squirrel

A

found to have dramatic difference in T in different body parts- can elevate T of tail by allowing more blood to tail- only in response to rattlesnakes (b/c rattlesnakes have heat sensing organs)- may intimidate the snakes

778
Q

emperor penguin regional heterothermy

A

decrease temperature of wings via wing vein, and feet, to conserve core Tb during diving

779
Q

metabolic rate vs. body size

A

vastly different in endotherm and ectotherm
ectotherms much much lower and nearly flat line with body body mass changes
endotherms- higher metabolism for smaller animals
metabolism is CAL/GH

780
Q

resting metabolic rate

A

SMR in ectotherms
BMR in endotherms
measured in thermoneutral zone (balancing gains and losses)

781
Q

MAMR

A

maximum aerobic metabolic rate- higher metabolic rates when active

782
Q

core temperature, heat production vs. air temperature, ectotherm

A

ectotherm- Tb increases with increases air T
heat production is minimal, increases w/ increasing T
core T is a passive function of air T

783
Q

core temperature, heat production vs. air temperature, endotherm

A

at ~38ºC heat production is 3-4X larger than endotherm
decreasing air T = increasing heat production
internal T is largely independent of air T

784
Q

vertebrate ectotherms

A

fishes, amphibians, reptiles; environment heat source, usually variable Tb, behavioural thermoreg, narrow range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, lower energy needs- prolonged exposure to no food, O2, larger ability to take advantage of dormancy, small sizes, long slender shapes

785
Q

vertebrate endotherms

A

dinosaurs(?), birds, mammals, some fishes
metabolic heat source, relatively constant Tb, mainly physiological thermoreg, wide range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, can live in cold places, activity in cold, enhanced aerobic scope for activity

786
Q

endothermic ectotherms

A

leatherback: largest turtle in world, globular shape, big and round, thermal inertia, can go up to Arctic circle, maintains T 8-10º, muscular activity (swimming) generate heat which is maintained, also reduce circulations to flippers

787
Q

thermal inertia

A

maintain heat because of large size and low SA:V

788
Q

regional endothermy

A

green turtle- active tissues ~7º warmer than water T, heat retained due to large body size and insulation of shell, increases swimming ability, facilitate long distance migration

789
Q

brooding python

A

maintain constant T against T gradient- jacks up metabolic T by shivering, musculature activity (only during brooding)- endothermic characteristic

790
Q

tunas generate heat

A

via red muscle; retain via counter current heat exchangers in brain, viscera, muscles

791
Q

bullfish/butterfly mackerel

A

thermogenic organ (modified extra ocular muscle fibres, different muscles, convergence)

792
Q

lamnid sharks

A

heat generated by slow-twitch myotomal muscle- transferred to cranial area via unique veins; contraction of extra ocular muscle also generates heat

793
Q

extraocular muscle

A

six muscles that control movement of the eye. and one muscle that controls eyelid elevation

794
Q

niche expansion hypothesis

A

heating of part of body- especially brain facilitates expansion in cold waters- deep diving

795
Q

body temperature vs. environment

A

or Tb1 vs. Tb2 (different body parts)

if slope ≠ 1 some type of thermoregulation is occurring

796
Q

lamnid shark and tuna convergence

A

hydrodynamic body form, thunniform locomotion, negatively buoyant, dive to cold depths, swim constantly with partly open mouth, similar red muscle distribution, similar tendon arrangement, endothermy (26º core), counter-current heat exchange systems; all this and not closely related

797
Q

thunniform swimming

A

confined primarily to the caudal fin, often fin is crescent-shaped (lunate) like a small wing and connected to the body by only a thin section called the caudal peduncle

798
Q

counter current exchange systems

A

retain generated heat

799
Q

body temp vs. air temp graph

A

different isotherms for different populations, body adjusted to different mean temperature; homeothermic only up to certain point (30ºC in shrikes) then heterothermic

800
Q

frequency and duration of turpor are a function of

A

feeding rate, consistant w/ idea that torpor is a body saving mechanism; negative correlation- lower frequency of torpor with high feeding rate, maintain higher Tb when well fed

801
Q

chick Tb

A

heterothermic when born; behaviour initiated by certain minimum T’s: biting, crawling 5-10º, shivering ~15º, wing flapping ~20º, flight ~30º

802
Q

endothermic performance curve

A

%Performance vs. Tb; can only show a narrow range of temperatures (endotherms don’t have large range of Tb)
ex. chick burst running speed- increasing, but only have data points for 30-45º

803
Q

muscle performance curve (endotherms)

A

muscles have larger range of T (T_m), max performance is at the highest T, peak T, peak performance- looks more like a ‘traditional’ performance curve; can even plot muscle performance of endo/ectotherms together on one

804
Q

why be adapted to narrow range of T?

A 
specialists- higher peak performance than a way wider performance curve seen in a generalist
2 enzymes (1 high T acclimated, the other cold) expensive to maintain both at once, typically don't find both forms in one animal at one time
805
Q

why be adapted to higher temperature range?

A

muscle movements create heat, body must be able to deal with high temperatures

806
Q

energy requirement vs. ambient temperature

A

two decreasing slopes, lower one - low conductance, higher one = high conductance; both converge at same T = Tb; a specific energy requirement will cross low conductance line at lower T than the high conductance line; balance heat loss?

807
Q

factors affecting conductance of a body

A

nature of surrounding fluid
size
shape
nature of body surface

808
Q

nature of surrounding fluid (conductance)

A

water conductance > air

tougher to be an endotherm in water

809
Q

size affects on conductance

A

SA:V

bigger animals lose heat less slowly

810
Q

effects of shape on conductance

A

SA:V

rounder animals maintain heat better

811
Q

nature of body surface, conductance

A

mammals- air, feathers, trap air btw body and surface of coat, which is a good insulator

812
Q

insulating value of fur

A

insulating values shift with season, especially in larger mammals; having fur is not adequate to initiate endothermy- important but need the other equipment too (internal)

813
Q

insulation value vs. fur thickness

A

positive correlation
low end- squirrels
high end- wolf, polar bear

814
Q

changing conductance

A

if ambient temperature drops- switch from high to low conductance to conserve energy; can be done by changing erection of hairs (in fur)

815
Q

generating metabolic heat

A

muscular contraction- physical activity, shivering
non-shivering thermogenesis
metabolism of viscera

816
Q

non-shivering thermogenesis

A

using brown-adipose tissue, particularly well developed in young mammals

817
Q

metabolism of viscera

A

metabolism of internal organs; 70% of heat production in mammals at rest is generated by internal organs; large internal organs in mammals

818
Q

thermalneutral zone

A

zone of ambient T’s an animal can maintain Tb with minimal energy, complicated by conductance, BMR, and critical T’s; T_lc - T_uc

819
Q

critical temperatures

A

T_lc lower critical- 4 possible locations: High/low BMR and high/low conductance- tightest interval is low BMR and high conductance, then high BMR high conduct., low BMR low conduct., high BMR low conduct.
high BMR, low conduct., gives widest interval on Tb but costs more E

820
Q

T_lc increased by

A

higher Tb
higher conductance
lower BMR

821
Q

TMR

A

torpid metabolic rate

822
Q

energy expenditure vs. ambient temperature with torpor conductance

A

shows that even in turpor thermal neutral zone is defended

823
Q

endotherm RMR, MMAR

A

higher resting metabolic rate- 5-10X ectotherms
higher maximum metabolic aerobic respiration
sustained activity is vastly higher, sprinting speed similar

824
Q

endotherms compared to ectotherms

A

higher aerobic scope and endurance- more red fibres in skeletal muscle; more effective oxygen delivery; turbinate bones; erect posture, parasagittal gait; increased mitochondrial SA, leakier plasma membrane

825
Q

endotherm oxygen delivery system

A

more vascularized lung, higher ventilation rate, 4-chambered heart; birds and mammals arrived at this independently (convergence)

826
Q

endotherm mitochondria and plasma membrane

A

larger SA in mitochon.- higher aerobic metabolism

plasma membrane leakier to Na, K, increased action potential, muscles, osmolarity– higher activity level

827
Q

turbinate bones

A

thin, wafer like structures, covered in moist vascularized mucosa; cool air in– past mucosa– moisture lost to mucosa– breath out– air is warmer than trniate– water is given back to mucosa– helps retain water that would otherwise be lost to environment

828
Q

turnout bone problems

A

problems in dry environments (deserts)- potential for loss of water with each breath out

829
Q

euthermy evolution

A

can’t tell turbinates, not preserved

bone histology can’t read much into- large ranges in endo and ectotherms

830
Q

strong coronary circulation

A

heart well vascularized, more powerful, generate higher blood pressures, can deliver blood to distal body parts when animal is in upright position

831
Q

most important character in endothermy

A

it is not just one character it is a whole suite of characters

832
Q

advantages of mammalian euthermy

A

high BMR, Tb higher than Tambient, constant core Tb, high MAMR (and aerobic scope)

833
Q

which advantages were the most likely targets for selection

A

constant core Tb, high MAMR

834
Q

aerobic scope

A

The ratio of the maximal aerobic metabolic rate to the basal metabolic rate, typically in the range of 3–10; range of possible oxidative metabolism from rest to maximal exercise

835
Q

hypotheses for evolution of endothermy

A

niche expansion

maintenance of high brain T

836
Q

scenarios for evolution of mammalian euthermy

A

thermoregulation first then aerobic capacity

Aerobic capacity first

837
Q

hypotheses for thermoregulation first

A

physiological, ecological, brain size, growth of young

838
Q

hypotheses for aerobic capacity first

A

sustained activity, juvenile provision

839
Q

most likely scenario for endothermy

A

correlated progression, came about by small steps; reptilians became progressively mor mammalian, gradually accumulate synapomorphies; parallel changes in different lineages (even the ones that don’t lead to mammals); integrate changes, a few at a time

840
Q

stick or grip? co-evolution of adhesive topes and claw in Anolis Lizards

A

Crandell et al., 2014; claw characters significantly different btw arboreal and non-arboreal lizards; arboreal higher and longer, decreased curvature, wider claw tip angles; toped size and claw length/height tightly correlated

841
Q

toepad

A

allows animal to move across smooth substrates with little difficulty (leaves, smooth bark); microscopic hair-like structures on ventral pad (setae); key innovation in anoles- niche expansion, radiation, diversification

842
Q

clawed vs. non-clawed animals

A

clawed can occupy larger portion of habitat

843
Q

claws interact with surface irregularities by

A

interlocking, friction
interlocking: surface irreg. > claw tip diameter
mechanical interlocking stronger, advantagous to decrease size of tip

844
Q

claw curvature

A

highest- climbers
med- perching
lowest- ground dwelling

845
Q

Nostril position in dinosaurs and other vertebrates and its significance for nasal function

A

Witmer, 2001; have enromous, complicated bony nasal apertures; fleshy nostril now thought to be rostral (forward); consequences for nasal air streaming, physiological parameters, circumolar odorants

846
Q

nasal structure roles

A

olfaction, respiration, manipulation, behavioural display, thermal physiology

847
Q

bony nostril

A

osseous nasal aperture

848
Q

studies fleshy nostril using what approach

A

extant phylogenetic bracket

849
Q

biological implications

A

tradition caudal position would be out of main airstream- important in convective heat loss, facilitated evaporative cooling, intermittent countercurrent heart exchange, heat and water balance, selective brain temperature regulation

850
Q

true navigation in birds: from quantum physics to global migration

A

Holland, 2013; birds able to return to known goal from a place they’ve never been; presents conflicting findings

851
Q

Type III navigational challenge

A

birds able to return to a goal after being displaced (even artificially) to an unknown area

852
Q

true navigation

A

ability of an animal to return to original location after diplacement to a site in unfamiliar territory, without access to familiar landmarks, goal emanating cues, or info about the displacement route

853
Q

migratory true navigation

A

ability of an animal to navigate to a specific breeding or wintering area following displacement

854
Q

map and compass hypothesis

A
  1. determine position with respect to the goal 2. determine direction to a goal; only conducted in adult birds (experience)
855
Q

celestial cues

A

using sun, star positions; studies find consitancy with sun compass but not sun navigation

856
Q

olfactory navigation

A

olfactory deprivation disrupts return home; may associate odours with wind directions; lack of repeatability; without odours may use other cues

857
Q

anosmia

A

inability to perceive odor or a lack of functioning olfaction

858
Q

magnetic cues

A

magnetic field stronger at poles- potential to indicate latitudinal position, coarse scale; skepticism- no sense organ- earths magnetic field can prevade all tissue

859
Q

radical pair mechanism

A

electron spin states affected by strong magnetic fields- radical pair molecule- photoreceptive- perceived through the eyes- may involve ZENK gene, cluster-N, night vision

860
Q

magnetoreceptor

A

cryptochrome- blue light receptor, long-lived radical pairs

861
Q

ferrimagnetic sense

A

multi doman magnetite- no magnetization, single domain- permanent magnetic moment, super paramagnetic- fluctuating magnetic moment; bacteria contain single domain, magnetite widely present in organisms; also only found in adults; magnetic field detected by trigeminal nerve

862
Q

Brave new propagules: terrestrial embryos in anamniotic eggs

A

Martin and Carter, 2013; lots of fish and amphibians reproduce terrestrially despite absence of amniotic egg; eggs- smaller, simple chorionic membrane; disadvantage- desiccation, novel predators; arisen independently in different lineages

863
Q

anamniotic egg

A

much smaller, more dependent on environmental conditions, simple chorion membrane

864
Q

advantages of terrestrial incubation

A

higher T, higher O2, diffusion of O2 more rapid in air- avoid hypoxia, avoid aquatic predators

865
Q

dehydrated eggs

A

deformed, death, hatch early

866
Q

protection against dehydration, anamniotes

A

less aquaporin channels, amyloid fibres in the egg envelope, shape, shaded under a boulder, in a burrow, buried in damp sand

867
Q

parental care, anamniotes

A

choice of oviposition site, guarding eggs, slashing them, exchange oxygen, transport tadpoles to water

868
Q

ECH

A

environmental cued hatching

869
Q

ECHs

A

decreased O2 levels, mechanical agitation of seawater, disturbance by snakes or wasps, presence of disease

870
Q

influence on size of egg

A

yolk, offspring size, time to hatching, maternal size, habitat quality, O2 availability, duration of spawning, geographic location, parental care

871
Q

endotrophy

A

ability to metamorphose without feeding, requires a minimum egg size

872
Q

larger egg sizes provide opportunity for

A

developmental plasticity

873
Q

types of terrestrial incubation

A

Type 1: conservative constitutive, Type 2: ECH early alert, 3: cautious constitutive, 4: ECH by parental involvement, 5: ECH ready and waiting, ECH ready and progressing, 7: precocious or direct development, 8: true diapauses

874
Q

diapause

A

delay in development in response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions, physiological state of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions

875
Q

propagule

A

any structure capable of being propagated or acting as an agent of reproduction

876
Q

Developmental change in the function of movement systems: transition of the pectoral fins between respiratory and locomotor roles in zebrafish

A

Hale, 2014; changes in roles of morphology between stages of life history; larvae zebrafish use pectoral fins to exchange fluid near body for cutaneous respiration; musculature and positioning of fin change

877
Q

developmental changes mediated by

A

adding cells, tissues, structures, change in body size, physics of movement, behaviour, scaling of body elements (allometry), motor control, ecological factors

878
Q

fin shape

A

high aspect ratio (wing shape)- improved cruising performance; low aspect ratio (rounded)- high-acceleration starts and maneuvers, improved hovering stability

879
Q

larval zebrafish

A

hatch 48-72hr post-fertilization, 3.1-3.5mm, yolk-stage -several days, pectoral fin bud forms ~24hr post-fertilization, 48h- fin elongate w/ skeleton

880
Q

chaotic mixing under viscous conditions

A

larvae use pectoral finds pull fluid distant from the body towards the trunk and move fluid in the boundary layer away from the side of the body to increase O2

881
Q

mutations in vhl gene

A

perceive environment as hypoxic

Biology (15 decks)

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