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BIOL 329 Flashcards

1
Q

distinguishing a risso dolphin

A

scars, whiten with age, tall dark sickle-shaped (crescent moon) fin, rounded head

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2
Q

distinguishing grizzly bear from brown black bear

A

grizzlies have hump on back - enlargement of shoulder blade bones for larger muscles attachment - lots of digging, forehead to nose is more concave

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3
Q

distinguish sea otter

A

much bigger than river otter, flat tail, dense fur, swim in groups, front paw, back flippers, rarely come on land

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4
Q

number of tetrapod species

A

~32,000

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5
Q

tetrapods

A

Amphibia
Reptile
Aves
Mammalia

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6
Q

defining tetrapod feature

A

legs

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7
Q

defining lizard, bird, mammal feature

A

lungs

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8
Q

defining reptilia, aves feature

A

scales

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9
Q

defining aves feature

A

feathers, wings

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10
Q

defining mammal feature

A

hair, mammary glands

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11
Q

World Wildlife Fund classification of BC

A

globally outstanding ecoregion

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12
Q

BC size (geographically)

A

Bigger than any European country except Russia and any US state except Alaska

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13
Q

BC fauna diversity

A

More vertebrate species than any other province or territory in Canada

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14
Q

BC amphibia species

A

~20
43 in Canada
~7000 worldwide

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15
Q

BC reptile species

A

~20
51 in Canada
~9600 worldwide

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16
Q

BC bird species

A

~530
615 in Canada
~10,000 worldwide

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17
Q

BC mammals

A

~150
207 in Canada
~5500 worldwide

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18
Q

BC plants

A

3150 species

richest flora in Canada

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19
Q

why does BC have such rich flora/fauna

A

very diverse biogeoclimatic zones

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20
Q

levels of threat and extinction graph

A

years (increasing up y axis), vs. probability of extinction (0 -1 increasing down x axis)
safe line is straight with high slope, vulnerable has small curve and pretty high slope, endangered has big curve extending along x axis

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21
Q

levels of threat and extinction

A

safe: 0.1P in 100y
vulnerable: 0.2P in 20y
Endangered: 0.5P in 10y
Critically endangered: >0.5 in 10

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22
Q

mammals vs. reserve size graph

A

of individuals vs. area
min. population size is a horizontal line
small herbivores, large herbivores, large carnivores are subsequent diagonal lines
where the lines cross is minimum area required to sustain animal population

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23
Q

minimum population size to survive

A

~2500

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24
Q

minimum reserve area for small herbivores

A

10km^2

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25
Q

minimum reserve area for large herbivores

A

~5000 km^2

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26
Q

minimum reserve area for large carnivores

A

> 100,000 km^2 — doesn’t exist

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27
Q

species listing categories

A 
extinct
extirpated
endangered
threatened
vulnerable
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28
Q

extinct species listing

A

species no longer exists on the planet

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29
Q

extinct examples (BC)

A 
Steller's sea cow
Dawson Caribou (1915)
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30
Q

extirpated species listing

A

species no longer exists in the region but still exists in other geographical areas

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31
Q

extirpated examples (BC)

A 
Pygmy Horned Lizard
Sea otter (has been reintroduced)
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32
Q

sea otter extirpation and relocation in BC

A

hunted to extinction for furs

relocated when US was doing weapons testing

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33
Q

Endangered species listing

A

facing imminent extirpation or extinction

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34
Q

BC endangered species

A

Tiger salamander
Keen’s long-eared Myotis
North Pacific Right Whale

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35
Q

Threatened species listing

A

a species likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed

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36
Q

BC threatened species

A

Vancouver Island Marmot

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37
Q

vulnerable species listing

A

a species that is particularly at risk because of low or declining population
have features that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events

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38
Q

BC vulnerable species

A

coastal giant salamander
bighorn sheep
spotted owl

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39
Q

peripheral species

A

a species that barely extends into the are of political jurisdiction (what are our responsibilities in protecting these species? what if they are peripheral everywhere they live? who will protect them?)

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40
Q

peripheral species example

A

Northern Leopard frog

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41
Q

Alien species

A

a species that has been introduced by humans and are not part of our historic wildlife heritage
also exotic/introduced species

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42
Q

example BC alien species

A

rat
bullfrog
starling

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43
Q

red-listed species

A

extirpated, endangered, threatened species listings

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44
Q

blue-listed species

A

vulnerable species listings

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45
Q

VI wolves

A

hybridized with dogs

shows how small populations are at risk of hybridization - low mate selection

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46
Q

SARA

A

Species at Risk Act (2004)
prohibits killing, harming, harassing, capturing, or taking of species listed under SARA as threatened, endangered, or extirpated

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47
Q

red and blue species coincide with

A

geoclimatic zone habitat loss

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48
Q

number of endangered or threatened tetrapod species in BC

A

~195

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49
Q

yellow-listed species

A

“secure”

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50
Q

COSEWIC

A

Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (national)

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51
Q

542 million years ago

A

end of the PreCambrian
Start of the Palaeozoic
Start of the Cambrian

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52
Q

250 million years ago

A

end of the Palaeozoic
Start of the Mesozoic
start of the Triassic period

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53
Q

65 million years ago

A

end of the Mesozoic (end of Cretaceous)
start of Cenozoic
start of Tertiary

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54
Q

Devonian

A

age of fish
transition to land
first tetrapods

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55
Q

major tetrapod diversification

A

mid paleozoic

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56
Q

largest extinction

A

P-T extinction (250mya)
more than 90% of species extinct, 60% of families
mammal-like groups get knocked back
reptiles undergo large diversification

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57
Q

continents 200mya

A

SA, Africa, India, antartica are together at the south pole - Gondwana

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58
Q

first reptiles

A

Carboniferous (~350mya)

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59
Q

continental changes

A

Pangaea supercontinent up to P-T boundary
Around Triassic period - Gondwana in S, Laurasia in N
Cretaceous - split into modern continents

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60
Q

separation of continents aids in

A

diversification (new niches?)

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61
Q

Amniotes

A

reptiles, birds, mammals

land sustainable egg

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62
Q

2 Amniote lineages

A

synapsida

diapsida

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63
Q

synapsids

A

mammals

1 hole at back of skull (plus eye hole like anapsid)

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64
Q

diapsids

A

reptiles, birds
“dual window” skull
skull fenestra, 2 holes on top of each other at back of skull

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65
Q

origin of tetrapods species

A

Tiktaalik
Acanthostega
Icthyostega

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66
Q

Tiktaalik

A 
recent discovery (2004, Nunavut)
ventral ridge oblique - transverse
enlargement of muscle attachment points from shoulder - forearm and forearm - radius and ulna
still look quite aquatic, kind of alligator looking- long snout
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67
Q

Acanthostega

A

origin of digits
enlargement of hind limbs and pelvic girdle
interarticulation between vertebrae
still has pretty aquatic looking body - flat, side splayed limbs, flat shorter head

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68
Q

Ichthyostega

A

elongation of limb long bones
changes to shoulder girdle
looks like its off the ground a little more, a little less flat

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69
Q

why are tetrapods thought to have arisen in the early Devonian

A

from molecular data

times of high oxygen levels

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70
Q

developmental plasticity

A

genetic variability + phenotypic plasticity

different growth patterns dependent on outside factors

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71
Q

fish egg

A

simplest; nucleus + yolk granules; surrounded by membrane, requires aquatic habitat

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72
Q

amphibian egg

A

same as fish egg except that it also has a jelly coat made of gooey protein solution so that it can survive in wet environment

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73
Q

amniotic egg

A

much more complex; shell, albumin, chorion, allantois, yolk sac, amnion; does not require aquatic habitat

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74
Q

mammal egg

A

placenta = specialized amniotic egg; allantois and yolk sac become umbilical cord

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75
Q

chorion function

A

gas exchange

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76
Q

allantois function

A

storage for nitrogenous wastes and O2 transport

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77
Q

albumin

A

physical protection and reservoir of water and protein

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78
Q

amniote skin

A

usually waterproof with keratinized epidermis

scales, hair, feathers

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79
Q

amniote ventilation

A

costal ventilation- lungs/diaphragm (vs. amphibian skin breathing)

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80
Q

tetrapod heart evolution

A

amphibian - 3 chambered (2 atria, 1 ventricle)
some reptiles- partial septum in ventricle for some separation of oxy-deoxy
crocodile, bird, mammal- 4 chambered, oxy-deoxy are separated

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81
Q

why separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

A

more efficient

increased regulation of Tb

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82
Q

ectotherms

A

amphibians and most reptiles

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83
Q

ectotherm habitat

A

most prevalent in tropics with high evapotranspiration (Warm and wet)

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84
Q

ectotherm genome

A

more complex, need complex enzyme systems to function t different T’s, highly variable Tb over time

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85
Q

ectotherm activity

A

generally inactive at night

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86
Q

endotherms

A

birds, mammals, some dinosaurs, some marine reptiles

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87
Q

mammal Tb

A

~37-40ºC

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88
Q

facilitate endothermy

A

feathers, hair, fat, cellular metabolism, counter-current heat exchange

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89
Q

why endothermy?

A 
active at all latitudes, seasons, time of day
pathogen resistance
higher capacity for sustained activity
higher digestion rate
control incubation T
parental care
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90
Q

poikilothermy

A

A poikilotherm is an organism whose internal temperature varies considerably
ectothermy

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91
Q

homeothermy

A

the maintenance of a constant body temperature despite changes in the environmental temperature
endothermy

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92
Q

inertial homeothermy

A

large bodied ectotherms that warm-up and then ‘hold it’ to maintain their body temperature above ambient temperature

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93
Q

metabolic rate and body mass in tetrapods

A

tightly positively correlated

however, ectotherms are significantly lower in metabolic needs, and body size can be much smaller

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94
Q

body size in ecto and endotherms

A

majority of salamanders vs. mammals/birds are nearly entirely outside of each other’s ranges- amphibians can’t get as big, mammals can’t get as small

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95
Q

why endotherms are generally bigger

A

smaller animals have higher SA:V - lose more heat

also better for endotherms to be rounded

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96
Q

minimum bird/mammal size

A

~2-3g

salamanders ~0.1g

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97
Q

biomass conversion efficiency (equation)

A

(energy converted/energy assimilated) x 100

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98
Q

biomass conversion efficiencies in tetrapods

A

ectotherms ~50% (6-98)

endotherms ~1.5% (0.5-3.0)

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99
Q

plesiomorphic

A

ancestral, primitive

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100
Q

endotherm biomass conversion efficiency

A

1.5% – >95% of everything we consume goes to heat – only beneficial in cold climate or nighttime foraging otherwise at a disadvantage compared to ectotherms

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101
Q

anapsid jaw bones

A

basal, no fenestra, very limited muscle attachment and jaw movement

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102
Q

synapsid

A

simple fenestra system, little more muscle attachment and jaw movement

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103
Q

diapsid

A

tuatara, t-rex, 2 fenestra, tremendous horizontal jaw movement control

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104
Q

tetrapod limb transitions

A

amphibians/many lizards- legs horizontal/lateral/splayed to side, body on ground, inefficient model
derived reptiles- limbs vertical/ventral/underneath body, allow bones of pelvic girdle to support body and legs to be used for forward motion

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105
Q

therapsids

A

gave rise to mammals

somewhere around the P-T boundary

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106
Q

advanced mammal diversification

A

around the Cretaceous - Tertiary

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107
Q

Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (K-T)

A 
over a million years of continuous volcanism (deccan trap)
then a meteorite struck
~20% of families
dinosaurs
65Ma
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108
Q

rise of the fish occurs when what is happening

A

global T’s are plummeting (end Devonian)

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109
Q

P-T extinction occurs when what is happening

A

global T’s are rising majorly
Oxygen levels re dropping (down to ~12% of todays)
siberian traps (volcanism)
abrupt ocean acidification (massive CO2 injection to atmos.)
widespread wildfires
low O2 advantageous for endotherms

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110
Q

amphibians common starting in

A

paleozoic

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111
Q

amphibians diversify in

A

Permian

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112
Q

ancient amphibians

A

some similarity to modern salamander, lizards, snakes
mainly aquatic juveniles, terrestrial adults
all fossils have spool-shaped vertebra, solid skull

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113
Q

amphibian evolutionary record shows

A

numerous reverse evolutions back to aquatic habitat for adults
repeated loss of ‘tetrapod’ limbs for burrowing and full aquatic life

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114
Q

amphibian fossil record completion

A

gap after permian until jurassic

3 groups of modern amphibians occur from Permian

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115
Q

all modern amphibians, 3 living groups

A

lissamphibia: anurans, urodela, caecilians

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116
Q

anurans

A

“no-tail”

frogs

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117
Q

Urodela

A

“tailed”

salamander

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118
Q

Caecilian

A

“blind”, legless, burrowing, tropical

limbless, serpentine amphibians

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119
Q

meaning of amphibian

A

amphi - biphasic life cycle (aquatic-terrestrial)

most species dependent on temporary or permanent aquatic habatats

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120
Q

BC Amphibians

A

11 species

2 invasives

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121
Q

origin of extant amphibians

A

Late Carboniferous, around 315 Mya

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122
Q

divergence between frogs and salamanders

A

Early Permian, around 290 Mya

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123
Q

length of typical frog life cycle

A 
3 years
first egg cleavage 3-12hours
embryo has tail bud 4 days
hatches 6 days
tadpole feeding on larvae 7 days
limbs, lungs 75+ days
tail shortens, functional lungs 90+ days
juvenile for 1-2 years
sexually mature 3 years
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124
Q

metamorphisis triggered by

A

thyroxine (pituitary gland)

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125
Q

additional effects during metamorphosis

A

tail muscles, gill arches, gills and operculum are reabsorbed and reincorporated in to other muscles
lung/eye/brain development
inner ear for hearing

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126
Q

why do frogs have specialized hearing for very low sounds

A

because they live close to the ground

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127
Q

why do frogs eyes bulge

A

enlarge buccal cavity - increase ‘mouth’ volume so they can fit more in

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128
Q

predation by snakes during frog metamorphosis

A

tadpoles 33%
transforming tadpoles 67%
transforming adults 90% (moving closer to shore?)
fully metamorphosed adults 45%

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129
Q

tadpole gas exchange

A

gills and skin

highly permeable skin densely covered in mucous glands

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130
Q

adult frog gas exchange

A

gills, lungs, cutaneous respiration, depending on extent of metamorphosis
terrestrial, arid, highly active species use primarily lungs

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131
Q

tadpole/frog mucous glands secrete

A

mucopolysaccharides (maintain mostness, permeability)

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132
Q

If tadpole/frog does not maintain moisture/mucous

A

overheat

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133
Q

amphibian drinking

A

ABSORB through ‘pelvic patch’ (highly vascularized skin patch)
urea in skin facilitates water absorption from moist surface

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134
Q

amphibian over-hydration

A

can easily over-hydrate and die

may have to lift themselves off the ground on to all 4 limbs to dehydrate

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135
Q

how to amphibians occupy dry habitat

A

behavioural adaptations: nocturnal, remain underground in dry season, forage only on rainy days, rest under leaves, ru mucopolysaccharides all over skin

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136
Q

frog defense

A

camouflage, aposematic
mucous
parotid glands

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137
Q

Aposematic coloration

A

warning signs, frogs with warning colours have particularly bad toxins in their skin (poison dart frogs), some frogs mimic these colours

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138
Q

Frog mucous as defense

A

antibiotic and reduce handling success of predators

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139
Q

Parotid glands

A

poison glands

repository for waste/toxins/junk - sometimes these compounds come from their diet and are stored there

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140
Q

compounds found in parotid glands

A

hemolytic proteins
epibatidine (neurotransmitter blocker)
tetrodotoxin (lethal)
neurotoxins

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141
Q

neurotoxins in poison dart frogs

A

alkaloids acquired from eating ants

ants obtain from fungus and vegetation

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142
Q

amphibian skin secretions as medicine

A

toxins, antimicrobial peptides, opioids, steroids, alkaloids
these compounds show cytotoxic, antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral activities (including anti-HIV). and easily obtainable

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143
Q

TTX

A

tetrodotoxin, only in amphibians, anti predator defense, unknown origin

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144
Q

frog foraging

A

tadpoles - herbivory
adults - carnivore
some carnivorous tadpoles

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145
Q

frog foraging, eyes

A

binocular vision for active capture or prey, including insects in flight

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146
Q

frog foraging, mouth

A

specialized tongue protrusion, folds out, releases from back
large mouth for swallowing large prey
reduced intestine

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147
Q

fossil of species similar to frog compared to present

A

modern- much less vertebrae, elongated pelvic girdle, longer hind limbs and toes

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148
Q

why the changes in present frog form

A

jumping (more muscle attachment)

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149
Q

when frogs jump their limbs

A

are all extended to increase lift

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150
Q

using limb length we can tell

A

life history, predict habitat

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151
Q

long forelimb, short hindlimb

A

walker-hopper

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152
Q

short forelimb, short hindlimb

A

walker-hopper-burrower (fat)

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153
Q

long forelimb, long hindlimb

A

jumper, walker-jumper

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154
Q

short forelimb, long hindlimb

A

swimmer, hopper

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155
Q

global amphibian species

A 
7022
2500 declining
1800 threatened
168 extinct
under the most threat of all tetrapods on the planet
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156
Q

BC Anurans (11species +2 alien)

A

rocky mountain tailed frog, coastal tailed frog, pacific treefrog, boreal chorus frog, red-legged frog, bullfrog, green frog, columbian spotted frog, northern leopard frog, oregon spotted frog, wood frog, western toad, great basin spadefoot toad

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157
Q

Western Toad scientific name

A

Anaxyrus (Bufo) boreas

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158
Q

Western toad distribution

A 
sea level - 2200 m (Mt. top)
wet forest - grassland
majority of BC except NE corner
terrestrial adult (adapted to dry, prefer moist), aquatic reproduction
very large distribution - opportunistic
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159
Q

Western toad oddities

A 
primarily nocturnal (at low elevation)
~silent during reproduction
often walk, not hop
winter hibernation nov-april, 1m depth
can't breathe under water
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160
Q

Western toad reproduction

A

black pearl egg strands
hatch within several weeks
tadpoles develop over summer
metamorphose late summer

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161
Q

Western toad listing

A

formerly widespread, major population reduction from raccoon predation (alien)
endangered in S US
IUCN red-listed

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162
Q

IUCN

A

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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163
Q

Western Toad longevity

A

up to 10 years

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164
Q

core habitat

A

necessary habitat for survival

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165
Q

hibernacula

A 
place of refuge for hibernation
often communal (68% of western toads)
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166
Q

Why western toad may not be adequately protected

A

protection traditionally at “vegetated buffers” (riparian zone) but 80-90% of hibernacula were beyond buffer zone

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167
Q

Western toad migration

A

migrate to communal breeding site April-July
150-2000m
90,000 body lengths!

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168
Q

Columbia Spotted Frog scientific name

A

Rana luteiventris

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169
Q

columbia spotted frog distribution

A

900-2200m
core habitat = constant water body
diverse habitat (wet forest, sage bushland, alpine tundra)
most of BC, not NE corner or West coast

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170
Q

columbia spotted frog oddities

A

overwinter at bottom of water bodies that don’t freeze
tadpole can last >1yr
opportunistic feeder
majority of time in water

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171
Q

columbia spotted frog feeding

A

aquatic/terrestrial inverts. (snails, insects, crustaceans, spiders)
20 orders of inverts., 20% beetles, 20% ants/wasps, 10% flies

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172
Q

columbia spotted frog breeding

A 
migrate between water bodies for breeding
egg masses laid in shallow water
tadpole can be >1yr
mature in 2-3yrs
longevity up to 10yrs
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173
Q

Oregon spotted frog

A

sub population w/ slightly different call - diversified group? do not interbreed

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174
Q

spectral habitat evaluation

A

spectral distribution can make habitat quantifiable - how much grass is there? tree canopy? dry, yellow, grass?

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175
Q

spectral habitat evaluation output

A

hyperspectral cube

each pixel contains ‘pages’ of every different wavelength

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176
Q

hyperspectral data collection

A

fly over with imaging spectrometer - emit dispersed spectrum, light passes through focusing lenses and collimating slit to diffraction grating, produce data cube

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177
Q

wood frog scientific name

A

Rana sylvatica

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178
Q

wood frog distribution

A

most of BC, not W coast or S end - well adapted to cold (N BC)
most of Canada
largely terrestrial, close to water (marshes, riparian, wet grass)

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179
Q

wood frog oddities

A

short tadpole stage
winter in root spaces
freeze solid

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180
Q

wood frog breeding

A

tadpole - several months
adult in 2 yrs
max life 3-4 years

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181
Q

wood frog freezing

A

genes in muscle metabolic pathway shut down
liver tissue remain active
up-regulate ribosomal protein
increase urea level to increase plasma osmolality (H2O leaves cell into interstitial space)
reduce ice crystal development - dehydration

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182
Q

Coastal tailed frog scientific name

A

Ascaphus truei

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183
Q

Coastal tailed frog distribution

A

only slim band on W coast, not the islands

clear, cold, very fast streams

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184
Q

coastal tailed frog oddities

A 
no vocal sac
no eardrum
more vertebra than other frogs
closely related to 'living fossil'
tadpoles up to 4years
can't flip tongue
tail only in males
one of longest living 
females store sperm
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185
Q

coastal tailed frog breeding

A

tail is copulatory organ - only NA frog w/ internal fertilization
f/m stores sperm from late summer -overwinter, allows fertilization in spring
eggs attached to downstream side of rock
tadpoles stay in stream up to 4 years before metamorph

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186
Q

why coastal tail frog has no eardrum

A

no vocalization, don’t need it - probably partly because of extremely fast flowing water habitat

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187
Q

coastal tail frog life span

A

15-20 years, highly unusual

one of longest living frogs

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188
Q

coastal tail frog closest relation

A

ancient NZ frog (Leiopelmatidae) which is indistinguishable from 150mya - considered ‘living fossil’

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189
Q

coastal tail frog diet

A

tadpole- algae, inverts
adults - insects, snails
adults must jump on prey - no tongue flip

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190
Q

high vocalization

A

requires higher O2 than high levels of locomotion
O2 doubles with doubling of call length
major physiological cost to calling

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191
Q

why spend energy for vocalization

A

longer calls made when other males are calling nearby

females prefer longer calls

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192
Q

pacific tree frog scientific name

A

Pseudacris (Hyla) regilla

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193
Q

largest family of amphibians

A

Hylidae

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194
Q

pacific tree frog habitat/distribution

A

S BC, including V. Isl, down to CA
on ground, among shrubs, gross, close to water
sea level to >3000m

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195
Q

pacific tree frog breeding

A 
use ephemeral ponds
breed Jan - Aug
eggs attach to vegetation
eggs hatch in 3 weeks
tadpoles metamorph. in 2 months
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196
Q

ephemeral

A

short lasting, not constant, transient

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197
Q

pacific treefrog oddities

A 
tremendous dexterity
can't live in lakes - susceptible to predation by fish
camouflage/bright pigment
introduced on H.G.
active day & night
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198
Q

BC anurans

A 
Western Toad
Columbia Spotted Frog
Wood Frog
Coastal Tailed frog
Pacific Treefrog
Boreal Chorus frog
Red-legged frog
Great Basin Spadefoot toad
leopard frog
american bullfrog
green frog
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199
Q

Boreal Chorus frog scientific name

A

Pseudacris maculata

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200
Q

Boreal Chorus frog distribution

A

NE corner of BC, Middle - East side of NA (north = cold)

adults fully terrestrial, near water

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201
Q

boreal chorus frog reproduction

A

tadpole metamorphose in 2 months

adults live 2 years

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202
Q

boreal chorus frog oddity

A

smallest BC frog
freezes in winter
highly vocal

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203
Q

boreal chorus frog cold adaptation

A

freezes overwinter in dry habitat- sugar in cells, intercellular spaces freeze
can’t freeze as cold as others
resume activity upon thawing in spring

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204
Q

Red-legged frog scientific name

A

Rana aurora

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205
Q

red-legged frog distribution

A

NW corner - only sunshine coast, VI

wet coastal forest, adults terrestrial

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206
Q

red-legged frog breeding

A

shaded streams/ponds Jan-March
adult males make breeding calls underwater
tadpoles 4-5months before metamorph.

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207
Q

great basin spadefoot toad distribution

A

small patch in S BC ~mid

dry forest/sagebrush flat

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208
Q

great basin spadefoot breeding

A

april-july, following heavy rains
utilize springs/slow-moving water, temporary pools- takes advantage of moisture when available - breeds immediately - ephemeral reproduction

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209
Q

great basin spadefoot oddities

A

ephemeral, immediate reproduction
digs burrows with spade foot
primarily nocturnal
adults hibernate or aestivate for up to 8months (winter or dry times)

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210
Q

aestivation

A

similar to hibernation, inactivity and lowered metabolic rate, entered in response to high T and arid conditions

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211
Q

leopard frog scientific name

A

Rana pipiens

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212
Q

leopard frog distribution

A 
one of most widely distributed in NA
possible on VI? 
not in rest of BC
mid- southern ends of E Canada
damp meadows
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213
Q

leopard frog oddities

A 
opportunistic feeders (anything moving)
overwinter @ bottom of ponds/rivers that don't freeze
major continent wide collapses
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214
Q

leopard frog collaps

A

since 1960’s

multifactorial: roadkill, herbicides, toxins, habitat, dams, fungus, alien predaters

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215
Q

American Bullfrog scientific name

A

Rana catesbeiana (alien)

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216
Q

American bullfrog distribution

A

very SW tip of mainland, and SE coast of VI
LITTLE bit in S: ON, QC, maritimes
historically one of most abundant/widespread in NA
recently introduce in W NA, Europe, SA, Australia

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217
Q

American bullfrog breeding

A

reproduce in vegetation-clogged ponds

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218
Q

American bullfrog feeding

A

tadpole - herbivorous

adults - opportunistic - sunsets, fish, snakes, ducklings, other frogs - up to 0.75kg

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219
Q

American bullfrog invasive

A

displaced other frogs from lower mainland and E VI

spreads chytrid fungus

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220
Q

american bullfrog oddities

A

can jump 2m
much deeper call (big size)
not very susceptible to chytrid fungus’
adults extremely opportunistic

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221
Q

chytrid fungus

A

Batrachochyrium dendrobatidis
causes fungal skin infection
lethal to other amphibians

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222
Q

Green (bronze) frog scientific name

A

Rana clamitans alien

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223
Q

green frog distribution

A

very very SW tip of mainland, very very SE tip of VI
SE end of Canada - huge distribution jump (introduced)
primarily aquatic, permanent water bodies, do not migrate

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224
Q

green frog wintering

A

ponds or underground

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225
Q

green frog breeding

A

tadpoles active throughout year

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226
Q

Anura sister species

A

Urodela

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227
Q

Urodela

A

salamanders

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228
Q

Anura, Urodela origin (time period)

A

Permian

~300 may

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229
Q

salamander life cycle

A 
similar to frog but more complex
complex and variable mating
egg mass laid in water
aquatic larva (external gills)
terrestrial adult OR
gilled adult (neoteny/paedmorphosis)
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230
Q

some salamander life cycle oddities

A

spermatophore and internal fertilization in derived groups
european salamander - live birth
paedomorphosis

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231
Q

most terrestrial salamander

A

European Plethodon - lost lungs, use cutaneous respiration, no aquatic larval stage

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232
Q

salamander size

A

usually 5-10cm

up to 100cm

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233
Q

BC salamanders

A 
Northwestern (Coast, Mts, GD)
Long-toed (Coast, Mts, GD, interior)
Tiger (Southern interior)
Coastal Giant (georgia depression)
Wandering (coast, Mts)
Coeur d'Alene (S Interior, Mts)
Western Redback (Coast, Mts, Georgia depression, S Interior)
Ensatina (Coast, Mts, GD)
Roughskin Newt (Coast, Mts, GD)
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234
Q

Long-toad salamander scientific name

A

Ambystoma macrodactylum

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235
Q

long-toad salamander distribution

A

most of BC, not Northern edge
sea level - 2800m
diversity of habitats - con. forest, mts, sagebrush- close to water
2nd most divers salamander in NA

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236
Q

long-toed salamander breeding

A 
in small ponds
male drops spermatophore
f/m picks up with cloaca
eggs/larvae develop 4months
carnivorous larvae, ~1yr
metamoph. in autumn, leave ponds
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237
Q

long-toed salamander odditites

A

overwinter on land, beneath frost line
adults produce toxins in tail
usually nocturnal

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238
Q

long-toed salamander feeding

A

insects, zooplankton, small fish, worms, tadpoles

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239
Q

northwestern salamander scientific name

A

Ambystoma gracile

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240
Q

northwestern salamander distribution

A

East coast BC down to CA
all of VI
moist coastal forests, grasslands

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241
Q

NW salamander breeding

A

larvae hatch 2-4 weeks (16mm)

metamorph. 1-2 years (80mm)

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242
Q

NW salamander oddities

A

neotenic adults common
different life histories at elevations
terrestrial mainly fossorial except during rain

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243
Q

NW salamander elevation vs. development

A

high elevation - population completely neotenic

low elevation and S populations - have non-gilled terrestrial adults

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244
Q

fossorial

A

adapted to digging and life underground such as the badger

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245
Q

rough skinned newt scientific name

A

Taricha granulosa

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246
Q

lateral line

A

system of sense organs found in fish, salamanders, used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water

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247
Q

Rough skinned newt distribution

A

W coast BC, down to CA, all of VI, same as NW salamander

moist forests, under logs

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248
Q

rough skinned newt breeding

A

in spring, shallow water, larvae in autumn, adults move to forest, return in 2 years
male drop sperm packet, female collects

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249
Q

rough skinned newt oddities

A

live for up to 12 years
carnivorous larval and adult
most toxic of BC salamanders
only salamander active in day

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250
Q

rough skinned newt feeding

A

insects, slugs, earthworms, other amphibians

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251
Q

rough skinned newt toxin

A

tetrodotoxin -damage Na channels in cell, causes paralysis and death
displays by flipping head&tail
3% of skin can kill adult human
garter snakes (major predator) resistant to toxin

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252
Q

Western Redback Salamander scientific name

A

Plethodon vehiculum

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253
Q

western redneck salamander distribution

A

SW BC down to Oregon, all of VI
Douglas fir
one of few to utilize young forests (2nd growth)
mostly associated with rocky habitat
underneath bark, stones, debris, decaying wood

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254
Q

western redneck salamander breedings

A

eggs- individual, clumps, parental care

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255
Q

wandering salamander scientific name

A

Andes vagrans

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256
Q

wandering salamander distribution

A

VI, isolated habitat SW Oregon (imported?)
old-growth
fully terrestrial, somewhat arboreal
under decaying wood

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257
Q

wandering salamander breeding

A

8-17 eggs singly on roof or side of log cavity or under bark, suspended separately on mucus stalks
females guard eggs
eggs hatch fall-early winter

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258
Q

wandering salamander oddities

A

alien from cali oak bark imports ~1850s
previously misclassified as Cloudy salamander
specialist

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259
Q

coastal giant salamander scientific name

A

Dicamptodon tenebrosus

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260
Q

coastal giant salamander distribution

A

very tiny distribution S mainland, W coast US to CA
coastal forest near fast mt stream
sea level - 2000m

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261
Q

coastal giant salamander breeding

A

larval stages remain in stream >1yr
adult stage moves to terrestrial habitat
long lived ~25yrs
some stay in stream and retain gills (neoteny)

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262
Q

coastal giant salamander oddities

A

neotenic adult 2X size of terrestrial (30cm vs. 15cm)
one of largest in NA
long lived

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263
Q

largest infection disease threat to amphibian biodiversity

A

Bd
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
few geographic-host limitations = widespread
decline and extinction>200 species worldwide

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264
Q

killing populations?

A

many factors. contaminants everywhere. systems weakened, pathogens gaining foothold.

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265
Q

second Chytridiomycota pathogen

A

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans causing lethal skin infections in salamanders

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266
Q

pregnancy leading to Bd outbreak?

A

Xenopus used for pregnancy testing (1930s), populations escaped, coexists with and harbours Bd

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267
Q

agricultural and amphibian populations

A

habitat loss, pesticide exposure, runoff
runoff: increased ammonia, phosphate, oxygen demand
may cause lower reproductive success, reduce population viability

268
Q

first blow to salamanders

A

increased UV -unshelled eggs, permeable skin - very sensitive to UV
climate change, O3 depletion, acidification– modify organic carbon– increase UV penetration

269
Q

species response to human alteration

A

invasive species favoured by human alteration of habitat

270
Q

difficult to find species detection

A

amplify DNA in water samples

271
Q

BC Reptiles

A

10 species

272
Q

amniote groups

A

synapsids - mammals

diapsids (reptiles) - testudines, lepidosaurs, archosaurs

273
Q

Vision- light comes in to

A

cornea – pupil

274
Q

light is focused

A

at the back of the eye, fovea

275
Q

slice of retina

A

rods and cones at back of eye

photon has to ‘get through’ to them

276
Q

rods and cones

A

light-sensitive modified nerve cells
contain opsins
attached to retina

277
Q

cones

A

day light, iodopsin

278
Q

rods

A

night light, not good resolution, rhodopsin

279
Q

rhodopsin

A 
low light
~10^-4 - 10^-1 light intensity
~new-full moon light
rods
scoptic vision
dominate retina in all species
280
Q

iodospin

A 
'high' light
~10^-1 - 10^4 light intensity
candles - dawn - bright day
cones (only active in day)
photopic vision
prevalent only in fovea in diurnal species
281
Q

fovea

A

solid cones, where photons are focused (rest of retina MOSTLY rods)

282
Q

scoptic vision

A

seeing in dark

283
Q

colour detection

A

detected by 3 types of cones equated to energy levels, not detected by opsins

284
Q

monochromatic

A

1 rod pigment

1 cone pigment

285
Q

dichromatic

A

2 cone pigments

286
Q

trichromatic

A

3 cone pigments

287
Q

tetrachromatic

A

4 cone pigments

288
Q

enhanced reptile/bird colour vision

A

red, orange, and yellow oil droplets randomly distributed at entrance of cones
some reptiles, most birds

289
Q

oil droplets in colour vision

A

narrow by-pass filters, shift light hitting the pigments
wide series of combinations btw pigments and oil drops
resolve more subtle differences in colour

290
Q

blue cones max λ

291
Q

rods max λ

292
Q

green cones max λ

293
Q

red cones max λ

294
Q

more opsin =

A

more shades of colour

295
Q

most birds and turtles have how many opsins

A

4-5

some fish have 12!

296
Q

why need better vision?

A

shadows of predators, ripeness of berries, prey/predators that blend in

297
Q

deep water animal colour vision

A

usually monochromatic

298
Q

reptile egg development

A

gender dependent on incubation T

different patterns

299
Q

sex determination patterns

A

I - decreased % males with increased T

II - highest % males at intermediate T’s

300
Q

why/how sex determination works (reptiles)

A

f/m may choose microhabitat w/ better success rate for that sex. ex. outside T = Tmale development, then choose microhabitat that preferentially causes m development

301
Q

differences in microhabitats, T

A

a matter of 3m difference in breeding grounds can cause the difference in m/f
ex lizard. 100%f at 23-29º, 0% at >29º

302
Q

Turtles (testudines) all have

A

testa (shell, ribcage)
keratinous sheath on jaws (rather than teeth)
ectothermy (leatherback has partial endothermy)
anapsid skull (limited jaw movement)
scotopic (night vision)

303
Q

tortoises

A

terrestrial testudines

304
Q

terrapins

A

swamp testudines

305
Q

turtles

A

mainly underwater testudines

306
Q

tortoise, terrapin, turtle

A

not a taxonomic division, descriptive terms

307
Q

testudines sizes

A

up to 2.5m

great leatherback - 900kg

308
Q

testudines geological age

A

origin- late Carboniferous

first fossils- Permian (terrestrial)

309
Q

turtle breeding

A 
5-100 eggs in excavated pits on beach or forest 
~50 day incubation
no parental care
sex determination based on T
live up to ~177yrs (Darwin)
310
Q

r-strategist

A

emphasis on high growth rate, typically exploit less-crowded niches, produce many offspring, each of which has relatively low probability of surviving (bacteria, insects, rodents)

311
Q

k-strategist

A

large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature

312
Q

extinct lepidosaurs

A

plesiosaurs

ichthyosaurs

313
Q

plesiosaur/pliosaur features

A 
apex marine predator of mesozoic (2nd half)
up to 20m long
taxonomically diverse
viviparous
extinct at KT
314
Q

plesiosaur fossils

A

common on VI and HG
ogopogo?
cadborosaurus?

315
Q

viviparous

A

live birth

316
Q

oviparous

A

egg-laying

317
Q

ovoviviparous

A

internal fertilization, live birth, no placental connection, unborn young are nourished by egg yolk

318
Q

Ichthyosaurs

A 
first half mesozoic
resemble dolphins
average 2-10m, up to 21m
viviparous - tail-first birth
very large eye sockets
likely endotherm
319
Q

why large eye sockets?

A

low light, nocturnal, great depth

high speed

320
Q

why large eye sockets for high speeds?

A

take advantage of bioluminescence?

large bone around eye would protect against high swim speed

321
Q

squamata

A

sister taxa to sphenodonts (tuatara)

lizards and snakes

322
Q

squamata geo age

A

modern families from the Jurassic

323
Q

squamata jaw

A

unique joint where lower jaw attacks to skull – increased jaw closing strength

324
Q

squamata fossil forms

A

Mosasaurs (look like Pliosaur)

325
Q

Mosasaur

A 
cretaceous marine predator
10m long
shallow water
eel-like movement not dolphin-like
likely oviparous
326
Q

number of modern lizards

A

4000 species globally

327
Q

lizards are

A

mostly tropical
all ectotherms
mostly small,

328
Q

large lizards

A

~3m

tend to be herbivorous (iguana)

329
Q

lizard habitats

A

diverse- desert, swamp, pond, alpine, fossorial, arboreal, marine

330
Q

fossorial lizard

A

legless lizards

331
Q

arboreal lizards

A

chameleons, anoles, iguana

332
Q

legless lizards evolved

A

independently, numerous times
highly convergent w/ snakes
tube within tube structure- bi-directional movement underground, atypical

333
Q

snakes developed

A

early Mesozoic

334
Q

snake reorganization

A

got rid of bilateral symmetry

reorganized internal anatomy to accommodate long narrow trunk

335
Q

snake organs

A

single functional lung

paired organs positioned in a line rather than side by side (ex kidney)

336
Q

snake # species and size

A

2900 species

2cm (thread snake) - 10m (anaconda)

337
Q

spurs

A

snake limb traces
present in less derived groups
burrowing snakes, boas, use for reproduction (clasping)

338
Q

snake jaw

A

unhinges for large prey soncumption

339
Q

snake breeding

A

70% oviparous
rest ovoviviparous
parental care rare- absent

340
Q

snake special features

A 
modified skull
organ reorganization
ectothermic
pit organs (heat sensing)
forked tongue (chemosensory direction)
341
Q

snake tongue kind of analogous to..

A

birds having more opsins

more of a sensing organ = more detection in that sense

342
Q

snake habitats

A

fossorial, ground, arboreal, aquatic

343
Q

most poisonous snake on the planet

A 
Taipan
Australia
3m 
neurotoxin, blood clotting
100% lethal bite w/o antivenom
344
Q

snake cultural legacies

A

Rod of Asclepius, Son of Apollo, hospital-like building w/ snakes, shedding = healing

345
Q

fear of snakes

A

Ophidiophobia

346
Q

snake shedding

A

4-6 times / yr

parasite/wound removal

347
Q

BC reptile distribution

A

mid- south BC
mid BC ~1-2 species
mid-South 3-4 species
middle S interior - 7-10

348
Q

BC turtles

A 
leatherback sea turtle
green sea turtle
olive ridley sea turtle
pacific pond turtle
western painted turtle
red-eared slider
349
Q

leatherback sea turtle scientific name

A

Dermochelys coriacea

350
Q

leatherback info.

A 
widest global distribution of all reptiles
12,000km migration/yr
dive 1200m
feed on jellies
nest in FA, costa rica, Mexico, malaysia
351
Q

green sea turtle scientific name

A

Chelonia mydas

352
Q

green sea turtle info

A 
wide distribution, mostly tropic
infrequent in BC, 2 recently in Pac Rim
young eat inverts.
adults eat eel/turtle grass
intolerant of T
353
Q

Olive Ridley Sea turtle (pacific ridley) info

A

circum- subtropic
long migrations
historically most abundant sea turtle
1 washed up in Pac Rim in 2011

354
Q

Pacific Pond Turtle scientific name

A

Actinemys marmorata

355
Q

Pacific pond turtle info

A 
historically in BC near US border
1866- present in majority of S lakes and ponds
last seen - 1959
extirpated in Canada
prefer logs, rocks, small ponds
356
Q

Western painted turtle scientific name

A

Chrysemys picta bellii

357
Q

Western painted turtle info.

A

S BC - Ontario and S
primarily carnivorous (beetles, etc)
only native turtle left in BC
hibernate in ponds/lakes under ice

358
Q

red-eared slider scientific name

A

Trachemys scripta elegans

359
Q

red-eared slider info.

A

alien
native to S US
longevity to 50 years

360
Q

BC lizards

A

northern alligator lizard
pigmy short-horned lizard
western skink
european wall lizard

361
Q

Northern alligator lizard scientific name

A

Elgeria coerulea

362
Q

northern alligator lizard info.

A 
sea level- 3000m
hemlock, douglas fir forests
sunning on rocks
feed on large insects, spiders, millipedes
internal fertilization, birth of young
363
Q

pigmy short-horned lizard scientific name

A

Phrynosoma douglasii

364
Q

pigmy short-horned lizard info.

A 
3 BC records, last in 1960
grassy, sagebrush, dry forest
major diet - ants
squirt blood from ocular sinus
inflate body and gape
365
Q

western skink scientific name

A

Eumeces skiltonianus

366
Q

Western skink info.

A

dry habitat-grass, sagebrush, dry forest
hibernate in communal den
diet of ground inverts.
defense - autotomy, self-inflicted or predator

367
Q

autotomy

A

self-amputation

368
Q

european wall lizard scientific name

A

Podarcis muralis

369
Q

european wall lizard info.

A

city of Victoria, 1970 (private zoo), NE US, europe, asia
oviparous - eggs laid under logs
same microhabitat as alligator lizard
can partially freeze ~5min

370
Q

BC Snakes

A 
western terrestrial garter
northwester garter
common garter
rubber boa
sharp-tailed snake
northern pacific rattlesnake
western yellow-bellied racer
great basin gopher snake
desert night snake
371
Q

western terrestrial garter snake

A

Thamnophis elegans
mildly venomous
can constrict rodent prey

372
Q

Common garter snake

A

Thamnophis sirtalis
most widespread snake in NA
most northerly distribution

373
Q

garter snakes

A

wide range of habitats (riparian, meadows, mt. slopes, S facing slopes)
overwinter in large groups in hibernacula
eat any live prey it can swallow
internal fertilization
live-bearing, 5-10 young
opportunistic foragers

374
Q

garter snake hibernacula

A

underground cavities that do not freeze

375
Q

rubber boa

A 
Carina bottae
same family as true boa's
kill by constriction
up to 80cm
thick body
long-lived, 30yrs
wide diet (bats, eggs, chicks, rabbits, mice, squirrels, snakes, lizards, frogs)
376
Q

sharp-tailed snake

A 
Contra tenuis
S VI - California
Douglas fir and Arbutus forests
nocturnal
communal egg-laying
feed on small slugs
377
Q

northern pacific rattlesnake

A 
Crotalus oreganus
only venomous BC snake 
crepuscular
vertical pupils
rattle
each most = new tip to rattle
live bearers
multi species hibernacula
378
Q

crepuscular

A

active primarily during twilight

379
Q

northern pacific rattlesnake venom

380
Q

western yellow-bellied racer

A

Colluber constrictor
widespread in W NA
hot, dry river valleys
fast, large eyes, oviparous

381
Q

great basin gopher snake

A

Pituophis catenine deserticola

widespread in W NA in dry, moist habitat

382
Q

desert night snake

A

S BC - Mexico
dry habitat
diet - amphibian, reptile

383
Q

Pacific Gopher Snake

A

extirpated in BC

widespread in W US (Or - Ca)

384
Q

Archosaurs

A

birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles

385
Q

Archosaur appearance

A

first in Triassic or Permian

diversified in Mesozoic

386
Q

ancient archosaur characters

A 
bipedalism prevalent in stem
teeth in sockets
fenestra anterior to eye and on lower jaw
2 major lineages in early Mesozoic
early fossils -terrestrial
some aquatics 
similar size/mass to T. rex
387
Q

2 major archosaur lineages

A

crocodiles

pterosaurs, dinosaurs, birds

388
Q

period of greatest crocodile diversity

389
Q

current archosaur distribution

A

tropical

ectothermic

390
Q

Gharial

A

fish eating croc.
specialist
long narrow jaw - moves quick

391
Q

croc vs. alligator

A

croc V-head
alligator U-head
croc lower jaw teeth visible w/ mouth closed
alligator lower jaw teeth into upper jaw sockets

392
Q

alligator diet

A

fish, snakes, birds, small/large mammals

simple parental care

393
Q

archosaur endothermy/ectothermy

A

crocodilian ancestors endothermic, invasion back to aquatic reverted back to ectothermy
retain 4-chamber heart (rare in ecto’s)
pulmonary bypass shunt

394
Q

Pterosaurs

A 
'winged-lizard'
origin and extinction - mesozoic
sparrow size - 15m wing
leather wing membrane - gliding
no keel- modest flight muscle
hollow bones (like birds)
advanced flight maneuverability
395
Q

2 dinosaur groups, major diversification

A

bird-like pelvis (did not give rise to birds)

lizard-like pelvis

396
Q

bird-like pelvis group

A

beaked
herbivorous
herding

397
Q

lizard-like pelvis group

A

toothed
predatory
solitary/packs

398
Q

in the mesozoic, large crocs

A

kept dino diversity ‘in-check’
(10-15m)
dino’s didn’t diversify until crocs slowed down

399
Q

weird that pterosaur could take off from ground?

A

no sternum- limited muscles

bone wings - not cartilage

400
Q

early radiation of dinosaurs

A

3 major lineages known from Triassic when contents were joined into Pangaea, climates were hot and arid

401
Q

3 major dino. lineages

A

theropods
sauropodomorphs
omithischians

402
Q

history of thermoregulation in dinosaurs 1900-1970s

A 
ectothermic
big crocodiles
too costly given mass
community pred-prey ratios similar to ectotherms
growth rings in teeth
403
Q

who proposed endothermy in dinosaurs and why

A

Ostrom - bipedal, fast, predatory
opens debate
re-opens argument for link between dinosaurs and birds

404
Q

endothermic arguments (dinosaurs)

A

leg bone x-section same as mammals
rapid growth rate like mammals
growth rings occur in endo.’s too (polar bear)

405
Q

oxygen isotopes (dinosaurs)

A

Delta O-18 values indicate that dinosaurs maintained rather constant Tb in the range of endotherms

406
Q

dinosaur oxygen isotope work suggests

A

high metabolic rates amongst widely different taxonomic groups, endothermy may be a synapomorphy of dinosaurs, or acquired convergently

407
Q

synapomorphy

A

shared derived character or trait state that distinguishes a clade from other organisms

408
Q

feathers in dinosaurs?

A

pennaceous and filamentous, possibly more diverse than modern ones, some features and morphotype lost in feather evolution

409
Q

pennaceous feather

A

type of feather present in most modern birds and some species of dinosaurs,has a stalk or quill, basal part, calamus, embedded in skin

410
Q

china deposits

A

so detailed and fine, lots of new evidence- feathers, colour

411
Q

fossil feathers preserve

A

morphology of color-imparting melanosomes. allow reconstruction of colour patterns.

412
Q

molecular data fossilization

A

some intact soft tissue- osteocytes with nuclei – DNA

may resolve relationships in evolutionary tree

413
Q

K-T extinction

A 
65mya
plate tectonics - loss of shelf habitat
global T reduction
Deccan flats 
magnetic reversals
loss of atmospheric O2
meteorites
414
Q

deccan flats

A

2my of vulcanism (65-63mya)

415
Q

K-T meteorite

A 
10km diameter
iridium layer
global fires
opaque atmosphere (5-10yr nuclear winter)
global collapse of marine/terrestrial pp
massive CO2 increase
416
Q

changes in magnetic field =

A

changes in insolation and [O2]

417
Q

pCO2 reconstruction from leaves

A

higher CO2 = smaller stomata

found K-T pCO2 levels 350-500ppmv, marked increase to at least 2,300ppmv within 10,000 years of KTB (boundary)

418
Q

Birds - geological time

A

mid jurassic

419
Q

Theropods

A

Maniraptor
appear to be origin of birds
light skull, pointed, large eye sockets, pleuorcoels, multiple cervical vertebrae, caudal tail shortens

420
Q

teeth changes throughout bird evolution

A

teeth become less serrated then teeth lost completely

421
Q

pleurocoels

A

respiratory vascularization
possible air-sac system like birds
lungs go into bones

422
Q

Maniraptor larger eye sockets

A

probably fast moving

423
Q

maniraptor increased cervical vertebrae

A

quick neck snatch

S-shaped neck

424
Q

gradual transition to birds

A

maniraptor - dromeosaur - archaeopteryx

425
Q

dromeosaur

A 
running lizard
~2m
sickle claw
semi-arboreal
couldn't fly
grasping arms
swivel wrist joint
cursorial terrestrial predator
426
Q

archaeopteryx

A 
'first wing'
size of raven, heavily feathered
asymmetric wing/tail feathers
longer arms
reduced tail
terrestrial w/ flapping flight
427
Q

cursorial

A

adapted to run

428
Q

enantiornithes

A 
improved low speed flight
increased skeletal fusion
deeper sternum
alula 
shorter tail
429
Q

ichthyornithiformes

A

essentially modern flight
shorter back/tail
deeper sternum and keel
more compact back and hip

430
Q

evolution of limbs (birds)

A

limbs become hollow in dromeosaur
forelimbs become longer relative to hindlimbs
fusion of wrist bones
fusion of hindlimb bones
early theropods couldn’t rotate shoulder cuff- important in flight

431
Q

wrist bone fusion

A

allow wrist to rotate for prey manipulation

432
Q

scapula/clavical evolution, birds

A

scapula reduced

clavicle modified to v-shaped bone in front of sternum (wishbone) – develops keel

433
Q

bird evolution- hindlimb fusion

A

fibula reduced to narrow splinter

434
Q

bird evolution- foot metatarsals

A

elongated and fused

435
Q

dromeosaur feathers

A

placement similar to modern bird
some down-like, some hair-like
vaned feathers on tail- heat retention, display

436
Q

feathers developed asymmetrically for

A

flight and drag reduction

no birds have symmetric wings- aerodynamics

437
Q

proposals for evolution of flight

A

running jump
gliding from trees
running/climbing

438
Q

running/climbing flight

A

run up tree trunk, flap poorly developed wings– generate lift and forward momentum, claws can grip trunk

439
Q

rachis

A

central shaft of feather

440
Q

calamus

A

base of the feather, expanded, hollow, tubular (quill), inserts into a follicle in the skin

441
Q

bird vs. human leg

A

birds walk on toes, metatarsals are upright, then ankle bend

bird leg bends 3 times (2 joints) compared to humans

442
Q

Archaeopteryx growth rate

A

very slow like small dinosaurs&raquo_space;1y to adult size

late cretaceous - modern birds grow within 1 yr

443
Q

theropod eggs

A

non-avian (crocodile): round-elliptical, large clutches (up to 60)
maniraptor/modern birds: tapered, small clutch (

444
Q

diversity changes in bird evolution

A

late jurassic only Archaeopteryx persists

lower K- diversification again- major group = Enantiornithes

445
Q

enantiornithe

A

‘opposite bird’
sparrow-goose sized
progressive tooth and vertebral reduction
atypical scapula
coracoid joint reversed to that of modern bird (concave)
atypical foot bone fusion
no tail fan

446
Q

why eggs are tapered

A

possibly anti-rolling, thermoregulatory, body cavity limitations, increased length of embryo

447
Q

second major group of birds

A

Neornithes
mid Cretaceous
develop into modern birds

448
Q

Ichthyornis (“fish” - “eating”)

A 
gull sized
feathered
toothed jaw
sternum, keel
gull-tern - like behaviour
449
Q

Neornithes birds

A

Ichthyornis

Hesperornis

450
Q

Hesperornis

A 
aquatic
feathered
toothed
vestigial wings
lateral hindlimb
lobed feet like grebe, not webbed
no land walking
451
Q

classification of modern birds

A

neornithes
palaeognaths
neognaths
neoaves

452
Q

Palaeognaths

A

tinamous
ratites
ancestor group to neoaves and neognaths

453
Q

ratites

A

ostrich, rheas, emu, kiwis, cassowary

all flightless

454
Q

tianamous

A

bright, colourful, shiny eggs
most ancient of modern groups
live on continents that made up Gondwana

455
Q

paleognaths, neognaths, neoaves differentiated

A

before KTB

456
Q

Neognaths

A

Galliformes
sister group to neoaves
turkey, waterfowl

457
Q

continents that made up gondwana

A

Antarctica, South America, Africa- Madagascar, India, Australia-New Guinea and New Zealand

458
Q

neoaves

A

biggest group in phylogeny (vastly)
sister group to neognaths
landlords, shorebirds, aquatic, hummingbirds, swifts

459
Q

stork vs flamingo

A

stork - neoaves, closely related to loon, albatross, penguin

flamingo - neognaths, closely related to grebe, pigeon

460
Q

flight biomechanics

A 
size constraints:
ostrich 150kg
elephantbird 450kg
both flightless
largest flying - giant condor 20kg
461
Q

elephantbird

A

~300yrs

extinct from humans taking eggs

462
Q

symmetrical tracts where feathers grow

463
Q

bare skin between feather tracts

A

apteria (may contain down)

464
Q

parts of a feather

A 
rachis- middle, main axis
vane- ?
calamus- end 
barb- comes out from rachis
hamuli - come out from barbs
465
Q

wing features

A

shaft, notch, primaries, secondaries, axiliaries

466
Q

some feather types

A

body contour
bristle
semiplume
filoplume

467
Q

bristle

A

near eyes and bill

468
Q

semiplume

A

insulation

469
Q

filoplume

470
Q

Primaries

A

attached to ‘hand’
fundamental in lift and propulsion/thrust
long and tapered

471
Q

feather symmetry

A

asymmetric

472
Q

why prene

A

reconnect the barbs (like velcro) that come loose during flight- essential for flight efficiency

473
Q

tree nesting birds have a lot of what

A

semiplume: max volume for floating down from tree before able to fly

474
Q

numbers of primaries

A

passerines 10
grebes, storks, flamingos 12
ostrich 16

475
Q

passerines

A

more than half of all bird species. unique toe arrangement-three pointing forward, one back- perching. known as perching birds or, songbirds

476
Q

secondaries

A

lifet
attached to ulna
broader
blunt end

477
Q

some secondary numbers

A

hummingbird 6

albatross 40

478
Q

‘arm’ bone proportions

A

proportions change in bird size/type, fluttering vs. soaring
hummingbird hand»ulna, humerus
albatross ulna/humerus>hand

479
Q

almost no-flight feathers

A

tertials (humerus)

480
Q

increase flying speed

A 
increased amplitude (not frequency)
inversely associated with relative wing lenth
481
Q

‘thumb’

A

alula
shorter than rest of 1º’s
very important at slow speeds
like airplane ‘flap’

482
Q

primaries compared to phylogenetic tree

A

lowest in passerines (10) ‘top’ of phylogenetic tree

most (16) in ostrich, ‘bottom’ of tree- furthest outgroup

483
Q

how to increase flying height

A

increase angle of attack or bend wing

484
Q

airfoil

A

shape that causes aerodynamic forces when moved through fluid

485
Q

aerodynamic forces

A

the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag.

486
Q

indentations at end of 1º’s

A

(notches) decrease drag

487
Q

lift

A

air under wing is constant (~flat)

air over wing is - pressure b/c it has to move faster to go as far over the convex surface

488
Q

v formation

A

birds behind can take advantage of up-wash

489
Q

up-wash

A

the upward flow of air directly ahead of the leading edge of a moving airfoil

490
Q

climb angle

A

angle of attack

491
Q

climb angle increased

A

by alula- produce vortices that improve tighter flow to upper wing surface at low speed. allows increase of 5-10º

492
Q

aspect ratio =

A

(wingspan)^2 / area of wing

493
Q

wing loading =

A

mass of bird / area of wing

494
Q

longer wings

A

reduce area of vortices relative to lift area

495
Q

tapered wings

A

reduce area of vortices at expense of lift area

496
Q

high aspect ratio

A

high lift : low drag
ex. shearwater
can go up fast but maybe not soar

497
Q

low aspect ratio example

498
Q

birds in high aspect - high loading grid corner

A

small, thin wings
diving birds
gannets, snipe, grebe, murres, sea duck, swan, duck, quail, puffin, pigeons, oyster-catcher

499
Q

birds in high loading - low aspect grid corner

A

small, broad wings
poor fliers
petrels, grouse, woodpeckers, doves, tinamous, pheasants, peacock, turkey

500
Q

birds in low loading - low aspect grid corner

A

large, broad wings
thermal soarers
larks, crows, cranes, eagles, owls, hawks, starling, herons, storks, vultures, condors

501
Q

birds in low loading - high aspect grid corner

A

large, thin wings
Aerial predators and marine soarers
kites, harriers, cuckoos, falcons, pelicans, storm-petrels, plovers, avocets, swallows, terns, swift, skimmers, albatrosses

502
Q

tail feathers

A

retrices
primarily for braking, steering, lift
often 6, up to 12 (grouse), absent in some (grebes)

503
Q

tail feathers connected

A

central pair to pygostyle w/ ligament (for rotation)

remaining pairs in rectricial bulbs beside pygostyle

504
Q

pygostyle

A

final few caudal vertebrae are fused into a single ossification, supporting the tail feathers and musculature

505
Q

long tail feathers =

A

sharp turns

brilliant display

506
Q

epigamic

A

sexual display

attracting the opposite sex, as the colors of certain birds

507
Q

molting

A

replacement of feathers (modified scales)

usually 1/yr after reproduction

508
Q

does molting result in loss of flight

A

feathers typically lost in stages, bilaterally symmetrical, so typically no loss of flight. some species have 4-5wk flightless stage (Canada Goose)

509
Q

which feathers are lost

A

oldest first

replaces w/ pin feathers– develop to full size

510
Q

Canada goose melting adaptation

A

absorbs flight muscles and reconstitutes them as leg muscles to move terrestrial

511
Q

bird mass distribution

A

shifted posteriorly

512
Q

bird anterior bones

A

(skull, vertebra, wings) all pneumatic, lighter than mammalian

513
Q

bird leg bones

A

stronger and heavier than mammals

514
Q

bird total mass : body size

A

similar to mammal

515
Q

pneumatic bones ancestral or derived

A

ancestral, present in flightless archosaurs

516
Q

which birds have less pneumatic bones

A

diving birds - need to be heavier

517
Q

a heavy bird with small wings

A

penguin, divers

518
Q

bird pelvis

A

fused to thoracic vertebra and sacrum to produce synsacrum for hind limb attachment

519
Q

bird muscles

A

flight muscles = 30% of total mass
leg muscles = 2% of total mass
light and dark

520
Q

relative muscle proportions

A

vary according to niche (aerial-running-diving) and molt cycle

521
Q

dark muscle

A

high myoglobin content - aerobic metabolism

522
Q

light muscle

A

no myoglobin - short duration flight muscles - anaerobic

523
Q

flying - downstroke

A

pectoralis pull tight, pulling wing bone down

524
Q

flying - upstroke

A

supracoracoideus pulls tendon that loops around foramen triosseum, pulling wing bone up

525
Q

wing muscles

A

pectoralis is on outside

supracoracoideus is on inside (touching/attached to sternum, scapula)

526
Q

pectorals mass : supracoracoideus mass

A

rapid take-off or hovering
3:1
horizontal fliers, gliders
20 : 1

527
Q

bird internal adaptations to flight

A 
4 chambered heart
250-1200 heart rate
~40ºC Tb
drop 5-10ºC at night 
2 lung, 9 air sacs
528
Q

Bird ventilation

A

lungs not vascularized (no gas exchange)
air sacs expand on upstroke-
inhale passively
air sacs ‘squished’ on downstroke - exhale actively

529
Q

what happens when air sacs are ‘squished’

A

shunt is closed, air is forced into parabronchi for gas exchange

530
Q

why do all birds lay eggs with no variation (ovoviviparity, viviparity, etc)

A

too much weight if young developed internally

531
Q

bird egg laying

A

1 egg/day

single oviduct

532
Q

bird urinary bladder

A

secret uric acid rather than urea

dont dilute w/ water, more water limited

533
Q

bird degestion

A

rapid, regurgitate pellets of undigested material, increased flight efficiency

534
Q

bird digestive tract

A

esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, pylorus

535
Q

crop

A

storage area, milk production (squamosal cells)

536
Q

proventriculus

A

glandular stomach, highly extendable in piscivores and frugivore

537
Q

gizzard

A

highly muscular, small stones for food grinding

538
Q

bird diet diversity

A

frugivory, granivory, herbivory, insectivory, piscivory, herbivory, omnivory, carnivory, etc.

539
Q

bird food requirements

A

much more than us, higher energy requirements, some eat more than body mass each day

540
Q

human food requirements

A

~1-2% of body weight

541
Q

food requirements per body mass

A 
higher in smaller body masses 
large birds (goose)- 10% body weight
small (wren)- 200% body weight 
~2x in pre-fledged age
~400% increase during provisioning of young
542
Q

some daily food consumption : body mass (g) examples

A 
goldcrest 7.0 : 5.7
wren   9.5 : 8.9
blue tit   13.5 : 11.5
skylark  224.8 : 37.2
wood pigeon  999.8 : 490.0
543
Q

impacts on nutritional requirement

A

body size

what is being eaten - how digestible is it? (ex. leaves)

544
Q

minimal gross energy requirement of 4.5kg eagle for 90day winter period at 5ºC

A

13 salmon, 20 rabbits, 32 ducks

545
Q

why do desert birds have lower energy requirements?

A

less energy needed to produce body heat

546
Q

why is there a need to reduce energy demands?

A

12g chickadee would use all fat reserves in 1 BC night and starve by morning if Tb held constant (40ºC)

547
Q

methods for reducing energy demand

A

Turpor- drop Tb ~10ºC overnight, reduces SMR by ~30%

548
Q

SMR

A

standard metabolic rate

549
Q

problem with deep turpor

A

STILL use up 75% of fat reserve, need to re-establish fat reserve every day (early), morning storms = high mortality

550
Q

to combat fat loss, reduce Tb more?

A

the more Tb is dropped, the harder it is to get back in the morning

551
Q

large birds and turpor

A

large birds don’t, they can survive a few days without eating
the largest bird that enters deep torpor is common poorwill (80g)

552
Q

hummingbird turpor

A

varying states throughout day and night. fn of ambient T, foraging success, predator risk. increased torpor = prolonged incubation, increased mortalitly

553
Q

reductions in daily foraging of hummingbird

A

12% reduction = 2 hours torpor at night

20% reduction = 3.5 hours torpor at night

554
Q

bird eye

A

immobile in most species
nictmttating membrane
different fields of vision
tetrachromatic

555
Q

nictititating membrane

A

lubrication, protection

556
Q

bird eye - field of vision

A

lateral (eyes on side of head)- improved resolution, perception, look out 1 at a time
binocular (forward, eyes on front of face) - depth/distance perception

557
Q

visual sensitivity proportional to

A

density of photoreceptors in retina

558
Q

bird visual acuity examples

A

songbird: 2X humans
raptor: 5-10X humans

559
Q

size of proportional to

A

body mass

also larger in nocturnal species and raptors

560
Q

bird, tetrachromatism

A

4 cone pigments (iodopsin) + rod pigment (rhodopsin, 503nm) + 1-6 different coloured oil drops

561
Q

diurnal bird eye

A

mainly cones, some rods

562
Q

nocturnal birds

A

mainly rods, some cones

563
Q

bird retina

A

2 regions - red field on dorsal quadrant, yellow field is the rest. relative proportion of red, orange, yellow oil droplets make up red/yellow regions

564
Q

pigeon eye

A

additional micro-oil droplets in cones of red region

565
Q

bird eye, oil droplets

A

shift light spectra, combinations of photopigments + oil drops = highly sophisticated colour vision, sensitive to polarized light

566
Q

vole detection by kestrel

A

kestrel utilize UV detection with additional opsin (370nm). Urine fluorescent, UV absorbance reradiates photons of longer wavelengths.

567
Q

even cooler about vole urine

A

fungal endophyte of grass– enhance UV visibility of urine– increase conspicuousness of vole. grazing on endophyte-infected grass = death!

568
Q

what does ontogenetic iris colour change tell

A

sometimes age

ex. sharp-shinned hawk yellow – red

569
Q

what does iris colour tell us

A

well there appears to be commonality in birds of the same habitat

570
Q

bird hearing

A 
usually lower than humans
no external ear/pinnae
single bone
cochlea differences
sensitivity inverse to body size
571
Q

bird, no external ear

A

sound goes down auditory canal to tympanic membrane

572
Q

bird, single ear bone

A

columella or stapes

vibrations transmitted through bone in middle ear to inner membrane in cochlea

573
Q

cochlea

574
Q

inner ear membrane

A

oval window

575
Q

cochlea second membrane

A

round window - allows pressure vibrations to be dissipated (20X amplification)

576
Q

bird, inner ear

A

uncoiled cochlea, hearing, balance, length varies among species (longer in predators)

577
Q

bird, ear sensitivity

A

20Hz - 20kHz
average 1-8kHz
inversely related to body size
slightly less sensitive than human at average frequency
much less sensitive than human at low (5kHz) frequencies

578
Q

inner ear anatomy can tell what about life history

A

cochlear size can tell hearing frequency range, vocal complexity, large group sociality

579
Q

high hearing sensitivity examples

A

low: budgerigar (40Hz), rock dove (50Hz), eagle owl (60Hz), great horned owl (60Hz)
high: tawny owl (21kHz), long-eared owl (18kHz), european robin (21kHz)

580
Q

bird, ear sensitivity

A

high sensitivity in mid ranges (1-8kHz, ~20dB), less E requirement than good hearing at all ranges
sensitivity ranges may shift

581
Q

shifts in hearing sensitivity range, birds

A

may increase acuity in winter when food abundance is low, camouflage is low (leaves fallen), for early mating, to be able to communicate amongst species with lower predation risk

582
Q

owl hearing

A

round face
asymmetric ears
bristles down middle of face

583
Q

owl hearing, round face

A

sense shape, focus sound to ears, amplify

584
Q

owl hearing, asymmetric ears

A

can ID vertical plane sounds
right ear: higher, angled differently, more sensitive to sound above horizontal
left ear: more sensitive to sound below horizontal (prey below them)
rotates head until stimulation is symmetrical

585
Q

owl hearing, bristles down middle of face

A

stereo sound

586
Q

hearing sensitivity of nestlings

A

columella not present at hatching- chicks can’t hear, at 8 days can’t hear lower than diesel truck, ~1wk before leaving nest can hear very similar to adult birds, hearing full developed by time vocal learning begins

587
Q

bird foot structures

A 
walking
hopping
perching
climbing
surface paddling, diving
588
Q

bird foot, hopping

A

feet together, arboreal birds (mostly passerines that can’t walk), starling, crows

589
Q

bird foot, walking/running

A 
cursorial birds (running)
2-3 toed, facing forward, no back toe
590
Q

bird foot, perching

A

most arboreal species (songbird, eagle, hawk), anisodactyly

591
Q

anisodactyly

A

3 toes forward, one backward and opposable- back toe is toe #1 = thumb

592
Q

unique perching bird foot

A

king fisher- syndactyly, back toe farther back, front toes longer

593
Q

bird foot, climbers

A

zygodacytly- 2 toes forward, 2 back

nuthatches, creepers, woodpeckers, parrots, owls

594
Q

bird foot, surface paddling, diving

A

webs or lobes
semipalmate, totipalmate, palmate, lobate
plover, cormorant, ducks, loons, gulls, grebe

595
Q

palmate

A

webbing between front toes- toes 2, 3, and 4

596
Q

totipalmate

A

webbing between all 4 toes, toe 1 is to the side not back

597
Q

semipalmate

A

only a little webbing between 1, 2, and 3

598
Q

perching bird leg

A

pretty much only see up to heel, fibula and femur against body, in perching position body mass causes achilles tendon to clamp foot shut

599
Q

why a bill?

A

greater diversity possible than toothed jaws

600
Q

what is a bill?

A

bony interior covered with an outer non-rigid keratin plate (rhamphotheca) that covers mandible, maxillae, premaxillae.

601
Q

bill types

A

generalist, insect catching, grain eating, coniferous-seed eating, nectar feeding, fruit eating, chiseling, dip netting, surface skimming, scything, probing, filter feeding, aerial fishing, pursuit fishing, scavenging, raptorial

602
Q

fossil bird bill

A

many had teeth, aquatic birds kept teeth more than terrestrial, modern birds still have capacity to form teeth

603
Q

foraging strategies

A

aerial piracy, aerial pursuit, dipping, skimming, pattering, hydroplaning, surface filtering, scavenging, surface seizing, surface plunging, deep plunging, pursuit diving: feet, pursuit diving: wings, bottom feeding

604
Q

birds that surface feed from floating, hovering, or flight

A

petrels, albatross, shearwater, gull, eagle, osprey. high metabolic requirements. slow growth rate, reproduce every 2 years, long incubation

605
Q

surface feeding: floating, hovering, flight

A

hover at surface and capture small fish, zooplankton, jellyfish, small squid. feed night and day, rarely settle on water

606
Q

surface feeding most common

A

at zones of convergence, often 100’s of kms from land

607
Q

surface feeding bird incubation

A

65 days
longest incubation of any bird
all egg T to drop to ambient

608
Q

bird foraging: diving from surface and underwater pursuit

A

foot or wing propulsion, weak aerial fliers, exploit niche space unavailable to surface feeders/plungers

609
Q

birds that forage from surface diving/underwater pursuit

A

cormorant, loon, grebe, mergansers, auklets, murrelets, puffing, murres, penguins

610
Q

surface diving depth examples

A

cormorant, loon 70m

penguin >500m

611
Q

bird foraging: deep plunge diving from flight

A

from horizontal flight- angle wings and plunge vertically, depth determined by momentum and mass. special breast air sac cushions impact

612
Q

deep plunge diving birds

A

mostly gannets, shearwater, pelicans

613
Q

depth of deep plunging divers

A

gannet - 10m

max depth a fn of mass

614
Q

scything

A

pick up think biofilm across sand

615
Q

filter feeding birds have

A

keratinous extensions on bill (like baleen whale)

616
Q

petrel feeding strategy

A

very expensive. feed basically 24hrs. small, fly far. egg slows down incubation if parent is not sitting on it- so it doesn’t starve to death while parent is away foraging for long period. very rare to have long incubation in small birds.

617
Q

why don’t we have deep divers?

A

high PP, reduced clarity

618
Q

bird foraging: skimming

A

small fish, zooplankton
ex. black skimmer (CA)
long bill, bottom longer

619
Q

bird foraging: piracy and scavenging

A

gulls, eagles, pomarine jaeger, frigate

often convex bill

620
Q

brid foraging: probing, biofilm feeding

A

long bills
different lengths = differential niche space exploitation
tidal/mud flats

621
Q

bird plumage: reasons

A 
display/signaling
hunting camouflage
defense camouflage
thermoregulatory
non-functional
historical
622
Q

vertebrate species #’s globally

A 
amphibians 7000
reptiles 9600
birds 10,000
mammals 5500
fish 30,000
623
Q

tetrapod species # canada

A

amphibians 43
reptiles 51
birds 615
mammals 207

624
Q

tetrapod species # BC

A

amphibians ~20
reptiles ~20
birds ~530
mammals ~150

625
Q

why are marine birds highly convergent in colour

A

hunting strategy

626
Q

think about when determining plumage colour

A

why? how can we test? if historical, why historical? what does predator/prey see? what is background? what is the females perspective? what is life history? microhabitat? compare colour amongst single species.

627
Q

example of sexual dimorphism not related to sexual signaling

A

snowy owl - male white b/c hunts, female darker b/c sits on eggs

628
Q

example of bird colour differences due to microhabitat

A

bufflehead- hang out at slightly different distances from shore- different reflections from above

629
Q

why so many marine birds white

A

hunting camouflage- against bright sky looking up

630
Q

why are there black gulls then?

A

different foraging time (night)? where do they live (tropics, thermoregulatory)?

631
Q

why are swans white? (not fishers)

A

white birds tend to have thicker feathers. higher albedo, less absorbed insolation.

632
Q

thin & black feathers and white & thick feathers both = heat. why 2 solutions to the same problem?

A

exploit more niche space? nesting site: white birds tend to roost at night in open spaces (loose more heat), dark birds in protected areas (loose less heat)

633
Q

lake colours

A

oceanic/clear mt lake - blue
interior, high phyto lake - green
dystrophic - red/brown, tea

634
Q

dystrophic

A

having brown acidic water, low in O2, supports little life- high levels of dissolved humus

635
Q

pursuit arc

A

the area ahead of the predator that contains prey species at risk

636
Q

narrow pursuit arc

A

bigger birds, swim fast in straight line

637
Q

wide pursuit arc

A

smaller birds, swim slower, back and forth across area

638
Q

white belly/neck birds in blue water

A

lessens contrast/dark shadow

the 1 photon that reflects off of water reduces the shadow of the animal (from the fishes perspective)

639
Q

red belly/neck bird in dystrophic water

A

in dominantly red environment light is red-shifted- red belly removes shadow same way it works in blue water/white bird

640
Q

so why are there variations in how much red (or other colours) are present- all the way up neck, across belly, etc.

A

swimming speed, pursuit arc
smaller bird- larger pursuit arc- most fish in front of and to the side of predator are ‘at-risk-‘, therefore they must be camouflaged from all fish not just the ones directly in front of them

641
Q

loon feeding

A

all piscivorous

642
Q

loon fossil

A

previously THOUGHT to be one of oldest groups of living bird- similar to late Mesozoic Hesperornis. First unambiguous fossils in early Eocene.

643
Q

loon body

A

feet far back on body
high wing-loading
2 juvenile molts

644
Q

loon high wing loading

A

sometimes can’t take off w/o wind

645
Q

loons in phylogenetic tree

A

~middle

sister group to pelicans, herons, storks, penguins, albatross, shearwater, petrel

646
Q

phylogenetic tree groups top to bottom

A 
landbirds
shorebirds (s.g. w/ landbirds)
aquatic
hummingbirds, swifts
turkeys, waterfowl (sister group to all above)
flightless (sister group to all others)
647
Q

BC loons

A

yellow-billed loon
common loon
pacific loon
red-throated loon

648
Q

arctic loon

A

previous classification- now split in to pacific loon and black-throated diver

649
Q

common loon distribution

A

breeding - most of Canada except VERY N and S Alberta/Sask

wintering- all along coasts of NA

650
Q

pacific loon distribution

A

breeding- only northern NA (Alaska, territories, very N’n tip of man, que, ont)
wintering- only W coast of NA

651
Q

yellow-billed loon disturbution

A

breeding- extreme N (TOP of alaska, E side of territories), pretty much exactly where common loon is NOT
wintering- W coast of Canada, alaska

652
Q

red-throated loon distribution

A

breeding- N coast of NA, and W coast of Canada, very peripheral
wintering- W coast of NA, E coast of US

653
Q

which 2 loons will you never find together

A

common and yellow-billed

654
Q

red-throated loon distribution oddities

A

restricted to

655
Q

Common Loons reproduce where

A

in freshwater lakes May-Sep
highly territorial- 1 pair per small lake, 1 pair per bay in large lake
occupy territory 1-2yrs before nesting

656
Q

common loon lake choice

A

> 0.5 km^2

don’t like small lakes because they have such high wing loading- need the space to take off

657
Q

common loon longevity

A

~60 years despite high fatality fights

658
Q

why do common loons occupy territory so long before nesting

A

breeding is expensive, want to get it right. even mock nest construction

659
Q

common loon breeding

A

longterm pair bonds
mate on or adjacent to nest site
2 eggs laid within several days of mating
24hr/day incubation for 28-39 days (both sexes)

660
Q

common loon morphism/chromatism

A

monochromatism

dimorphic- m 5% larger

661
Q

common loon chicks

A

ride on adult backs

provisioned by both parents

662
Q

common loon, nest risk

A

right at edge of lake- flooding will remove nest (b/c they suck at walking on land)
ooivores (crows, ravens, raccoons)
fledging at 70-80 days
remain with parents until ~winter

663
Q

common loon, chick provisions

A

whole fish
10-16 weeks
no regurgitation

664
Q

common loon and pebbles

A

digestion, reduce buoyancy for diving

sometimes mistake gun shells as pebbles- lead poisoning

665
Q

common loon, foraging

A 
up to 80m
average dive: 30-60s, up to 4minutes
small fish swallow underwater
large fish brought to surface
eat large diversity of fish
biomagnify contaminants (Hg)

Biology (15 decks)

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